Bu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Evidences of Hassuna Culture Influence to the East of Central Zagros Region, IranEvidences of Hassuna Culture Influence to the East of Central Zagros Region, Iran720272510.22084/nbsh.2019.18672.1915FABehzadBalmakiAssistant Professor, Department of Archaeology, Islamic Azad University, Hamedan BranchJournal Article20190311Hassuna culture is one of the early periods in the Initial Village of Zagros that was indicated as an index for these periods after the excavation of Hassuna site. This culture was found the first in the northern Mesopotamia and then in other places such as Turkey and northwestern Iran. At the beginning of level II Hassuna, new thick pottery has been found. This culture also has characteristic streaky assemblages such as pottery so-called “Husking Tray Ware” that belong to the transitional Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia. Finding some samples in the Hamedan plains, which were highly similar to those potteries, many questions were raised about the relationship of the eastern central Zagros with Mesopotamia and if the environment is capable of resulting such a culture or not. This study is conducted with an ecological approach, hypothesizing that the cultural similarities of Iran and Mesopotamia have been influenced by environmental similarities, even in minimum scales, and if the cultural changes occur in reaction to the changes of ecological relations. Finding such similar samples in Hamedan plain can be an evidence of its cultural influences in about eight centuries later in the eastern regions of central Zagros, although the evidence of this influence is seen lesser in the west and central areas of central Zagros. With finding other samples in eastern and northern regions of Hamedan province, we can suggest that a giant curved path from the north-west of Iran to the more centric and then western regions for transporting such a technic in pottery making. It seems that a curved path can be considered for this culture. And this path can be from the north of Mesopotamia reaches the lake Urumia and from there in the natural ways of Zanjan province, especially the Abhar river basin, into the plain of Hamedan
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Hassuna, Husking Tray Wares, Hamedan Plain, Chalcolithic Period, East of Central Zagros.
Introduction & Method
The northern plains of Alvand that is located in the administrative area of Hamedan province, the center of Hamedan province, is 1813 meters above the sea level. The highest mountain in this region is Alvand, with a peak height of 3580 m, and the lowest point is the Razan plain with height of 1700m. The river networks in this region can be divided into two parts, one ending in the Persian Gulf in the south of Iran and the other part reaching the Qom Lake in the center of Iran. These mountainous areas have always been the linking path between east and west of Zagros and have been one of the significant linking paths between the Iranian plateau and Mesopotamia.
On the other hand, researches conducted on the Chalcolithic period in the plains of Hamedan indicate that at the same time as the Godin X (Dalma period), we are faced with the increase of density of pottery findings compared to the previous periods. Dolma’s culture is also well known as the dominant culture of the early and middle chalcolithic period, and its expansion is evident in vast areas of the northwest and west of Iran.
Among these clay samples, typical samples of rough pottery similar to those “Husking Tray Ware” of the Neolithic period to Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia and this can be evidence of the enormous cultural influences around eight centuries later in the eastern part of the central Zagros. Hassuna culture is one of the early periods in the initial village of Zagros that was indicated as an index for these periods after the excavation of Hassuna site. This culture was first found in the northern Mesopotamia and then in other places such as Turkey and northwestern Iran. This study is conducted with an ecological approach, hypothesizing that the cultural similarities of Iran and Mesopotamia have been influenced by environmental similarities, even in minimum scales, and if the cultural changes occur in reaction to the changes of ecological relations. At this stage, we have visited and reviewed the Chalcolithic period sites, which there was no necessary information about them in hand, and we collected the specific information for each area to obtain essential information for each analytical work. The scope of our study was to study all the plains of the northern mountains of Alvand, Hamedan, including the plains of Bahar, Hamedan, Kabodrahang, Razan, and Famenin.
Identified Traces
In five sites in the northern plains of Hamedan, some wares were found that were similar to that reported in the Hassuna sitese area, with the difference that, as earlier mentioned in the introduction, these potters have been found in sites belonging to the Chalcolithic eriod (Dalma Phase) period. In the meantime, Taze Kand was stratigraphically studied and the other sites have just been surveyed.
Among the Dalma findings of Taze Kand, most of which are plain clay with a red coat and a large amount of them were impressed, with simple shapes with rough pottery with parallel grooves or bumps on the body of the pottery With a technique similar to that found in Husking tray wares, in other sites of the Hamedan plain, such as the Cholanghi Tepe, there is also a kind of pottery with a technique similar to the clay pottery of Hassuna. Other areas include the sites of the Matrook Tepe I and II, and Sari-Tape. Husking tray ware are a large and flat pottery with concave bottom, usually about 40 to 60 centimeters in length. Its rims with a slight slope of exterior are about 15 centimeters, and its entire interior has prominent appendages and deep or perforated grooves, or with a pointed and pointed tip. In addition to the type of dentin and groove of this type, it was also found in the study area. According to archaeologists, these trays were used to separate peel from grains. The observed pottery in the Hamedan plains also has a red and often rough coat with inadequate baking. The mixture used in these potters is a combination of plants and minerals. Among the plant material, it is straw and other vegetables. The used Mining compounds include sand and various microstructures. These potteries, other than daisy, or the added and neglected roses, lack special decoration.
Conclusion
the environmental conditions of this area, in spite of relative similarities with the western regions, the more centralized regions of the Zagros, Kermanshah, Ilam and Kurdistan provinces, there are differences in the type of vegetation and climatic conditions. On the other hand, there are specific archaeological findings (pottery similar to the Hassunan technique), which is more commonly observed in the Hamadan plain and reported less in the western regions. Regardless of these particular findings, a large part of the archaeological findings of Hamadan during the Chalcolithic period is comparable to the plains of the central Zagros or, in other words, the Central Western Iran.
Regarding the above mentioned, the scattering range of the similar pottery tray in Hamedan plain is widely spread, and a particular route has to be drawn from the eastern and northern parts of Hamedan plain. On the other hand, due to the existence of similar findings in Zanjan province and Azerbaijan (the most original material) and their entering into the northern plains of Hamedan province, it seems that a curved path can be considered for this culture. And this path can be from the north of Mesopotamia reaches the lake Urumia and from there in the natural ways of Zanjan province, especially the Abhar river basin, into the plain of Hamedan.Hassuna culture is one of the early periods in the Initial Village of Zagros that was indicated as an index for these periods after the excavation of Hassuna site. This culture was found the first in the northern Mesopotamia and then in other places such as Turkey and northwestern Iran. At the beginning of level II Hassuna, new thick pottery has been found. This culture also has characteristic streaky assemblages such as pottery so-called “Husking Tray Ware” that belong to the transitional Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia. Finding some samples in the Hamedan plains, which were highly similar to those potteries, many questions were raised about the relationship of the eastern central Zagros with Mesopotamia and if the environment is capable of resulting such a culture or not. This study is conducted with an ecological approach, hypothesizing that the cultural similarities of Iran and Mesopotamia have been influenced by environmental similarities, even in minimum scales, and if the cultural changes occur in reaction to the changes of ecological relations. Finding such similar samples in Hamedan plain can be an evidence of its cultural influences in about eight centuries later in the eastern regions of central Zagros, although the evidence of this influence is seen lesser in the west and central areas of central Zagros. With finding other samples in eastern and northern regions of Hamedan province, we can suggest that a giant curved path from the north-west of Iran to the more centric and then western regions for transporting such a technic in pottery making. It seems that a curved path can be considered for this culture. And this path can be from the north of Mesopotamia reaches the lake Urumia and from there in the natural ways of Zanjan province, especially the Abhar river basin, into the plain of Hamedan
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Hassuna, Husking Tray Wares, Hamedan Plain, Chalcolithic Period, East of Central Zagros.
Introduction & Method
The northern plains of Alvand that is located in the administrative area of Hamedan province, the center of Hamedan province, is 1813 meters above the sea level. The highest mountain in this region is Alvand, with a peak height of 3580 m, and the lowest point is the Razan plain with height of 1700m. The river networks in this region can be divided into two parts, one ending in the Persian Gulf in the south of Iran and the other part reaching the Qom Lake in the center of Iran. These mountainous areas have always been the linking path between east and west of Zagros and have been one of the significant linking paths between the Iranian plateau and Mesopotamia.
On the other hand, researches conducted on the Chalcolithic period in the plains of Hamedan indicate that at the same time as the Godin X (Dalma period), we are faced with the increase of density of pottery findings compared to the previous periods. Dolma’s culture is also well known as the dominant culture of the early and middle chalcolithic period, and its expansion is evident in vast areas of the northwest and west of Iran.
Among these clay samples, typical samples of rough pottery similar to those “Husking Tray Ware” of the Neolithic period to Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia and this can be evidence of the enormous cultural influences around eight centuries later in the eastern part of the central Zagros. Hassuna culture is one of the early periods in the initial village of Zagros that was indicated as an index for these periods after the excavation of Hassuna site. This culture was first found in the northern Mesopotamia and then in other places such as Turkey and northwestern Iran. This study is conducted with an ecological approach, hypothesizing that the cultural similarities of Iran and Mesopotamia have been influenced by environmental similarities, even in minimum scales, and if the cultural changes occur in reaction to the changes of ecological relations. At this stage, we have visited and reviewed the Chalcolithic period sites, which there was no necessary information about them in hand, and we collected the specific information for each area to obtain essential information for each analytical work. The scope of our study was to study all the plains of the northern mountains of Alvand, Hamedan, including the plains of Bahar, Hamedan, Kabodrahang, Razan, and Famenin.
Identified Traces
In five sites in the northern plains of Hamedan, some wares were found that were similar to that reported in the Hassuna sitese area, with the difference that, as earlier mentioned in the introduction, these potters have been found in sites belonging to the Chalcolithic eriod (Dalma Phase) period. In the meantime, Taze Kand was stratigraphically studied and the other sites have just been surveyed.
Among the Dalma findings of Taze Kand, most of which are plain clay with a red coat and a large amount of them were impressed, with simple shapes with rough pottery with parallel grooves or bumps on the body of the pottery With a technique similar to that found in Husking tray wares, in other sites of the Hamedan plain, such as the Cholanghi Tepe, there is also a kind of pottery with a technique similar to the clay pottery of Hassuna. Other areas include the sites of the Matrook Tepe I and II, and Sari-Tape. Husking tray ware are a large and flat pottery with concave bottom, usually about 40 to 60 centimeters in length. Its rims with a slight slope of exterior are about 15 centimeters, and its entire interior has prominent appendages and deep or perforated grooves, or with a pointed and pointed tip. In addition to the type of dentin and groove of this type, it was also found in the study area. According to archaeologists, these trays were used to separate peel from grains. The observed pottery in the Hamedan plains also has a red and often rough coat with inadequate baking. The mixture used in these potters is a combination of plants and minerals. Among the plant material, it is straw and other vegetables. The used Mining compounds include sand and various microstructures. These potteries, other than daisy, or the added and neglected roses, lack special decoration.
Conclusion
the environmental conditions of this area, in spite of relative similarities with the western regions, the more centralized regions of the Zagros, Kermanshah, Ilam and Kurdistan provinces, there are differences in the type of vegetation and climatic conditions. On the other hand, there are specific archaeological findings (pottery similar to the Hassunan technique), which is more commonly observed in the Hamadan plain and reported less in the western regions. Regardless of these particular findings, a large part of the archaeological findings of Hamadan during the Chalcolithic period is comparable to the plains of the central Zagros or, in other words, the Central Western Iran.
Regarding the above mentioned, the scattering range of the similar pottery tray in Hamedan plain is widely spread, and a particular route has to be drawn from the eastern and northern parts of Hamedan plain. On the other hand, due to the existence of similar findings in Zanjan province and Azerbaijan (the most original material) and their entering into the northern plains of Hamedan province, it seems that a curved path can be considered for this culture. And this path can be from the north of Mesopotamia reaches the lake Urumia and from there in the natural ways of Zanjan province, especially the Abhar river basin, into the plain of Hamedan.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2725_a650e38925d6cdd5382696489a818d61.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Analysis Socio-Economic Complexitiesof the Societies of the Central Plateau of Iran During 5th Millennium B.C.E. on the Basis of Pottery TechnologyAnalysis Socio-Economic Complexitiesof the Societies of the Central Plateau of Iran During 5th Millennium B.C.E. on the Basis of Pottery Technology2136272610.22084/nbsh.2019.16225.1739FASeyyed KamalAsadi OjaeiM.A. Student of Department of Archeology, University of MazandaranRahmatAbbasnejadCorresponding Author, Assistant Professor, Department of Archeology, University of MazandaranHassanFazeli NashliProfessor, Department of Archeology, University of TehranHamid RezaValipourAssistant Professor, Department of Archeology, University of Shahid BeheshtiJournal Article20180430The expansion of socio-economic complexities in Central Plateau of Iran (CPI) occurred during the transitional and early chalcolithic Periods (5<sup>th</sup> millennium BCE). Methodology of the present research based on the analysis of pottery data and some other and complementary evidences of the 5th millennium BCE which have been discovered in Qazvin and Tehran Plains’ archaeological surveys, newly added sites’ excavations such as Chahar Boneh and Ebrahim Abad, re-excavations of some prehistoric sites such as Zaghe, Qabrestan and Sialk, and finally, laboratories researches and chronological studies in CPI region. Pottery production which was common place in the form of household in the half of the 6th millennium BCE in CPI’s societies, gradually, was specialized due to improving of the pottery production and painting from Sialk I1-3 to Sialk I4-5. The important changes that occurred in this period are included: the increasing of prehistoric sites in Tehran Plain; the producing of counting objects in Zagheh; putting gifts made of non-native raw materials in the graves of Zagheh; the appearance of elegant and red pottery of Cheshmeh Ali in the area of CPI; and baking of pottery in advanced furnaces in Tepe Pardis. Most of mentioned evidences on the prevalence of workshop and production activities in this period. Some important developments, such as advances in architecture, metalworking and pottery, took place from the early Chalcolithic (Sialk III1-3) to the late Chalcolithic (III6-7b). Also, the evidences of copper ore melting were obtained in Qabrestan and Sialk in this period. The existence of planning and organization in the societies of the 5th millennium BCE in CPI is proven by the use of potter’s wheel, the exploitation of advanced pottery furnaces, the decoration of interior and exterior surfaces of potteries with geometric, plant, animal, human and narrative designs, and using characteristics such as proportionality, symmetry, composition and framing are the reasons of the specialized production.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Socio-economic Complexities, Central Plateaue of Iran, 5th Millennium BCE, Pottery Technology.
Introduction
The Iranian Central Plateau communities in the last stages of the Neolithic period experienced some levels of socio-economic complexities. Evidence in the field of pottery technology tells us that why and how human societies evolved from a state of stratified to hierarchical position in CPI area during 5th millennium BCE. The increase in population, the expansion of settlements and the achievements of specialized productions were the most important consequences of this transformation.
The prevalence of economic and social mechanisms and the presence of individuals as social elites in this period becomes obvious through new technologies and innovations of specialized pottery production. This significant development reflects the existence of the institutional production control process. This process required some technical and production preconditions. They include the availability of resources and raw materials and methods of production and processing, the presence of a specialized manufacturer, demand for consumer goods, and existence of transportation mechanism. In this paper we analyze the preconditions for pottery production in the societies of CPI during the mentioned period. Determining the role of these preconditions in explaining the socio-economic complexities of the mentioned societies is one of the other goals of this article. Analysis of the complexities of prehistoric societies of CPI during this period through pottery is one aspect of innovation in this research.
Complexities and Pottery in 5<sup>th</sup> Millenniume B.C.E.
An increasing process in the production and decoration of pottery in the five layers of Sialk I also reflects the household production method of course, at a specialized level. Potteries of the sites such as Pardis, Sadiq Abadi, Cheshmeh Ali and Tepe Arastoo in Tehran plain represent an evolutionary process from the Neolithic to the transitional Chalcolithic technically and in terms of elegance and motives (Fazeli Nashly, 2001; Fazeli Nashli et. al., 2010). Transitional Chalcolithic (5200-4300 BCE) (Wong et. al., 2010: 11) had such features as settlements increasing, population growth, technological changes, the emergence of manufacturing organizations, and the appearance of trans-regional relationships. Cattle domestication was a sign of the growth of agriculture and animal husbandry in this period (Young and Fazeli Nashli, 2008). Non-native materials counting objects in Zagheh express the prevalence of a trade and management mechanism. Pottery production data in the framework of workshop production in Zagheh during 5th millennium BCE are significant (Wong et. al., 2010). Cheshmeh Ali pottery was produced with features such as better elegance, proper baking quality, multiple tempers, and a variety of patterns and forms in the Sialk II period. The discovery of the remains of furnaces and other related equipments in Tepe Pardis represent the prevalence of a specialized and workshop activity (Fazeli Nashli et. al., 2007).
The quality of Cheshmeh Ali pottery in the upper layers of Sialk II, shortly after the beginning of the 5<sup>th</sup> millennium BCE upgraded. At the same time, the Sialk northern hill was abandoned and then settling with interruptions was begun on the southern hill in the middle of the 5th millennium BCE. Meanwhile, Zagheh was abandoned and Qabrestan emerged as an industrial center.
In the lower layers of Qabrestan, the period of the middle plateau (Majidzadeh, 1976), which are synchronous with Sialk III1-3 a dark purple pottery called plum ware was obtained. The pottery evolution from Sialk II to Sialk III, including plum ware, seems to be an intra-regional process. The endogenous process of pottery technology from the late Neolithic to the late Chalcolithic (Sialk III6-7b) has been confirmed in Zagheh plain (Wong et. al., 2010). Some of the innovations in the early Chalcolithic (Sialk III1-3) are the using of pottery wheel and more advanced furnaces, the production of buff-colored pottery painted into new and innovative motives, and the use of composite tempers. At the end of the 5th millennium BCE the pottery was manufactured specialized. Technological complexities have taken place in Sialk and most of the CPI sites. As a consequence, a suitable platform was provided for new developments in the Sialk III4-5 period.
Conclusion
The production of pottery in the CPI was a household activity, and it has taken the first steps of specialization in the middle of the 6th millennium BCE. Improving production and upgrading quality of potteries of sialk I1-3 which led to the Sialk I4-5 pottery has been one of the examples of this specialization. Increasing the number of sites in Tehran plain, making tokens and objects of precious and semi-precious imported stones in Zagheh, the appearance of the elegant and red painted pottery of Cheshmeh Ali, and discovering of direct evidence of the production and baking of pottery in Tepe Pardis certificate on the prevalence of workshop production activities, regional and trans-regional relationships and the continuation of the specialized production process from the end of the 6th millennium BCE to the middle of the 5th millennium BCE. Using pottery wheel and advanced furnaces, and decoration of inner and outer surfaces of pottery with geometric, plant, animal, human and narrative and fiction (?) designs which are implemented using coordinates such as proportionality, symmetry, composition and framing represent specialized production. The occurrence of these events has not been possible without the guidance, supervision and support of individuals who have been known in the archaeological literature of complexity to the Social Elite.The expansion of socio-economic complexities in Central Plateau of Iran (CPI) occurred during the transitional and early chalcolithic Periods (5<sup>th</sup> millennium BCE). Methodology of the present research based on the analysis of pottery data and some other and complementary evidences of the 5th millennium BCE which have been discovered in Qazvin and Tehran Plains’ archaeological surveys, newly added sites’ excavations such as Chahar Boneh and Ebrahim Abad, re-excavations of some prehistoric sites such as Zaghe, Qabrestan and Sialk, and finally, laboratories researches and chronological studies in CPI region. Pottery production which was common place in the form of household in the half of the 6th millennium BCE in CPI’s societies, gradually, was specialized due to improving of the pottery production and painting from Sialk I1-3 to Sialk I4-5. The important changes that occurred in this period are included: the increasing of prehistoric sites in Tehran Plain; the producing of counting objects in Zagheh; putting gifts made of non-native raw materials in the graves of Zagheh; the appearance of elegant and red pottery of Cheshmeh Ali in the area of CPI; and baking of pottery in advanced furnaces in Tepe Pardis. Most of mentioned evidences on the prevalence of workshop and production activities in this period. Some important developments, such as advances in architecture, metalworking and pottery, took place from the early Chalcolithic (Sialk III1-3) to the late Chalcolithic (III6-7b). Also, the evidences of copper ore melting were obtained in Qabrestan and Sialk in this period. The existence of planning and organization in the societies of the 5th millennium BCE in CPI is proven by the use of potter’s wheel, the exploitation of advanced pottery furnaces, the decoration of interior and exterior surfaces of potteries with geometric, plant, animal, human and narrative designs, and using characteristics such as proportionality, symmetry, composition and framing are the reasons of the specialized production.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Socio-economic Complexities, Central Plateaue of Iran, 5th Millennium BCE, Pottery Technology.
Introduction
The Iranian Central Plateau communities in the last stages of the Neolithic period experienced some levels of socio-economic complexities. Evidence in the field of pottery technology tells us that why and how human societies evolved from a state of stratified to hierarchical position in CPI area during 5th millennium BCE. The increase in population, the expansion of settlements and the achievements of specialized productions were the most important consequences of this transformation.
The prevalence of economic and social mechanisms and the presence of individuals as social elites in this period becomes obvious through new technologies and innovations of specialized pottery production. This significant development reflects the existence of the institutional production control process. This process required some technical and production preconditions. They include the availability of resources and raw materials and methods of production and processing, the presence of a specialized manufacturer, demand for consumer goods, and existence of transportation mechanism. In this paper we analyze the preconditions for pottery production in the societies of CPI during the mentioned period. Determining the role of these preconditions in explaining the socio-economic complexities of the mentioned societies is one of the other goals of this article. Analysis of the complexities of prehistoric societies of CPI during this period through pottery is one aspect of innovation in this research.
Complexities and Pottery in 5<sup>th</sup> Millenniume B.C.E.
An increasing process in the production and decoration of pottery in the five layers of Sialk I also reflects the household production method of course, at a specialized level. Potteries of the sites such as Pardis, Sadiq Abadi, Cheshmeh Ali and Tepe Arastoo in Tehran plain represent an evolutionary process from the Neolithic to the transitional Chalcolithic technically and in terms of elegance and motives (Fazeli Nashly, 2001; Fazeli Nashli et. al., 2010). Transitional Chalcolithic (5200-4300 BCE) (Wong et. al., 2010: 11) had such features as settlements increasing, population growth, technological changes, the emergence of manufacturing organizations, and the appearance of trans-regional relationships. Cattle domestication was a sign of the growth of agriculture and animal husbandry in this period (Young and Fazeli Nashli, 2008). Non-native materials counting objects in Zagheh express the prevalence of a trade and management mechanism. Pottery production data in the framework of workshop production in Zagheh during 5th millennium BCE are significant (Wong et. al., 2010). Cheshmeh Ali pottery was produced with features such as better elegance, proper baking quality, multiple tempers, and a variety of patterns and forms in the Sialk II period. The discovery of the remains of furnaces and other related equipments in Tepe Pardis represent the prevalence of a specialized and workshop activity (Fazeli Nashli et. al., 2007).
The quality of Cheshmeh Ali pottery in the upper layers of Sialk II, shortly after the beginning of the 5<sup>th</sup> millennium BCE upgraded. At the same time, the Sialk northern hill was abandoned and then settling with interruptions was begun on the southern hill in the middle of the 5th millennium BCE. Meanwhile, Zagheh was abandoned and Qabrestan emerged as an industrial center.
In the lower layers of Qabrestan, the period of the middle plateau (Majidzadeh, 1976), which are synchronous with Sialk III1-3 a dark purple pottery called plum ware was obtained. The pottery evolution from Sialk II to Sialk III, including plum ware, seems to be an intra-regional process. The endogenous process of pottery technology from the late Neolithic to the late Chalcolithic (Sialk III6-7b) has been confirmed in Zagheh plain (Wong et. al., 2010). Some of the innovations in the early Chalcolithic (Sialk III1-3) are the using of pottery wheel and more advanced furnaces, the production of buff-colored pottery painted into new and innovative motives, and the use of composite tempers. At the end of the 5th millennium BCE the pottery was manufactured specialized. Technological complexities have taken place in Sialk and most of the CPI sites. As a consequence, a suitable platform was provided for new developments in the Sialk III4-5 period.
Conclusion
The production of pottery in the CPI was a household activity, and it has taken the first steps of specialization in the middle of the 6th millennium BCE. Improving production and upgrading quality of potteries of sialk I1-3 which led to the Sialk I4-5 pottery has been one of the examples of this specialization. Increasing the number of sites in Tehran plain, making tokens and objects of precious and semi-precious imported stones in Zagheh, the appearance of the elegant and red painted pottery of Cheshmeh Ali, and discovering of direct evidence of the production and baking of pottery in Tepe Pardis certificate on the prevalence of workshop production activities, regional and trans-regional relationships and the continuation of the specialized production process from the end of the 6th millennium BCE to the middle of the 5th millennium BCE. Using pottery wheel and advanced furnaces, and decoration of inner and outer surfaces of pottery with geometric, plant, animal, human and narrative and fiction (?) designs which are implemented using coordinates such as proportionality, symmetry, composition and framing represent specialized production. The occurrence of these events has not been possible without the guidance, supervision and support of individuals who have been known in the archaeological literature of complexity to the Social Elite.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2726_432f27faae80a2927e1ac10b9b4c06d8.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Analytical-Comparative Study of Gotvand Gach-e Sangi Site, Based on Pottery DocumentsAnalytical-Comparative Study of Gotvand Gach-e Sangi Site, Based on Pottery Documents3754272710.22084/nbsh.2019.14130.1618FAHassanDerakhshiDepartment of Archaeology, Shoushtar Branch, Islamic Azad University, ShoshtarJournal Article20170710As a cultural material, pottery is an important evidence to achieve chronology and recognize settlement period in any archeological site. Gotvand city is one of the prominent zones in terms of cultural data, particularly potteries found in Gach-e Sangi site. This site is located at north of Susiana Plain near Karun River where educational exploration was conducted and some potteries were collected by surface survey and within trench I and its sounds. The main questions raised in this study include what types of pottery are important, to which designs these are decorated, and to what phases these belong? Moreover, another issue of the study is the analysis of the situation and position of this site among Susiana plain sites. Due to the importance of this cultural material, 86 important pottery artifacts were selected and studied using a comparative-analytical method. Results showed that the most frequent form of potteries was of open-mouth types, especially bowls and glasses, except for a limited number of them that had animal designs, the rest has been decorated by geometrical designs, which temporally belong to the Mid- and Late Susiana phases. In other words, based on chronological order for potteries, the above-mentioned habitat has been formed at the end of the 6th BC and early 5th BC millennia (Mid-Susiana); the issue that was not mentioned in former analytical studies of archaeologists (e.g., Henry Wright) in the site. This site has been incessantly dwelled since the formation in the given phase to the end of the urbanism period. In addition, stylistic and technical analysis and comparison of the important potteries indicated that regardless of continuity of some types, proportional to change and influence of pottery tradition, this site, especially in the new city of Susiana was affected by these transformations and had cultural relations to other zones.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Susiana PlainGach-e Sangi Site, Pottery Comparison, Relative Chronology.
Introduction and Methodology
Pottery is the most durable data with stylistic and cultural variations, as well as its time period. If it is studied and analyzed within a regular framework, it can be used as reliable document in archeology. The chronological order of pottery is one of the foremost gains, so that a relative time of fabrication and precedence of texture can be found by comparing the given samples with the adjacent zones (Tohidi, 2007:122). Due to abundant and continuous production, it was always followed by transformations and innovations, especially in form and design, some of them emerged due to internal cultural change and growth over the time and another part appeared because of economic and cultural links with far and near communities (Yari & Talayee, 2005:62). Studying these properties in prehistoric period is an important evidence for relative chronology of sites and their comparison. Due to the importance of these data and their variation and frequency in archeological sites, many archeologists studied them in various dimensions (e.g., Majidzadeh, 1991; Alizadeh, 2002; Talayee, 2011). Gach-e Sangi Site (Gotvand city) located in Susiana plain was initially explored for training archeological students within trench I. Of course, numerous potteries were randomly collected during analysis of site surfaces (Derakhshi, 2011). This research studies prehistoric prominent potteries of the site, relative chronology, and situation and analysis of the site for the first time. The goal of studying potteries of Gach-e Sangi site was to acquire relative chronology of the site and determine its cultural relations with adjacent zones. Therefore, the prominent potteries obtained by both surface analysis and exploration site were compared only in terms of form and decoration, a method that is used for relative dating of the sites. Thus, using this comparative method for potteries, relative chronology of site was determined, which was consistent with the common chronology of Dez area and Central Susiana proposed by Delougaz and Kantor (1996), and corrected by Alizadeh (2003؛ 2008). Moreover, the site cultural relation with other zones was analyzed by the same comparative pottery method.
Geographical Situation and Research Background
Gach-e Sangi site is geographically located at the south of Gotvand city and beside a natural flood control channel leading to Karun river. This site was registered under No KS.173 (Adams, 1962), and analyzed by Wright (1969) and Johnson (1973) during previous archeological explorations. Finally, this site has excavated and surveyed in order to training archeological students. According to layer and feature system (trench I), 22 layers were identified, so that the surface layer to Layer 14 belonged to New Suse II, and Layers 15 to 22 included a combination of pottery evidence in New Suse II and New Susiana 2 (Derakhshi et al., 2015). Among the potteries under study, 86 potsherds were selected and studied comparatively.
Late Mid- Susiana (LMS)
Typology of the potteries in the mentioned phase includes long glasses decorated with vertical designs on external surface and zigzag designs on internal edge, large bowls with hachured lozenge, and ladder and zigzag designs. The existing designs on the above-mentioned forms are geometrical designs. Stylistic and technical similarities of this phase potteries indicate proximity to the key site and central location at Chogha Mish site (Delougaz & Kantor, 1996).
Late Susiana 1 (Ls1)
The potteries of this phase are very fine and well-made with a little sand and without temper in most cases. These types of potteries have usually beige to buff color on surfaces. The designs in this group also mainly includes geometrical themes. The extensive similarities of potteries in Late Susiana 1 confirms the relationship between lowland and highland regions.
Late Susiana 2 (LS2)
The pottery indexes in this phase include long glasses, and open and semi-circular bowls decorated with various geometrical designs. These potteries can be also compared with the ones in Suse I in Chogha Mish and upper phases of Jafarabad.
Conclusion
Comparative analysis of some of prominent potteries in Gach-e Sangi site, which has been feasible based on surface survey and excavation (Trench I), indicated that it has been dwelled incessantly since the Late Mid- Susiana Phase to Late Susa Phase 2 and this shows the importance of the site among eastern sites in Susiana plain and cultural continuity. It seems that Gach-e Sangi site was firstly formed in the Late Mid- Susiana beside an ancient natural flood control channel. Thus, the increased population followed by further prospecting for natural resources in less-known areas in the Mid- Susiana periods directly affected the occurrence of establishments of eastern Susiana plains, as well as this site. The pottery data of this phase was adequately found in Gach-e Sangi site simultaneously with Late Susiana 1 phase. Moreover, pottery similarities of the site with highland areas can be proved. The above-mentioned site still exists in Late Susiana 2 phase; however, this site is mainly related to central and western zones of Susiana plain in this phase. The results of comparative studies demonstrated that continuity or variations may not be only related to stylistic or technical changes in pottery tradition, but also they represent socioeconomic transformations.As a cultural material, pottery is an important evidence to achieve chronology and recognize settlement period in any archeological site. Gotvand city is one of the prominent zones in terms of cultural data, particularly potteries found in Gach-e Sangi site. This site is located at north of Susiana Plain near Karun River where educational exploration was conducted and some potteries were collected by surface survey and within trench I and its sounds. The main questions raised in this study include what types of pottery are important, to which designs these are decorated, and to what phases these belong? Moreover, another issue of the study is the analysis of the situation and position of this site among Susiana plain sites. Due to the importance of this cultural material, 86 important pottery artifacts were selected and studied using a comparative-analytical method. Results showed that the most frequent form of potteries was of open-mouth types, especially bowls and glasses, except for a limited number of them that had animal designs, the rest has been decorated by geometrical designs, which temporally belong to the Mid- and Late Susiana phases. In other words, based on chronological order for potteries, the above-mentioned habitat has been formed at the end of the 6th BC and early 5th BC millennia (Mid-Susiana); the issue that was not mentioned in former analytical studies of archaeologists (e.g., Henry Wright) in the site. This site has been incessantly dwelled since the formation in the given phase to the end of the urbanism period. In addition, stylistic and technical analysis and comparison of the important potteries indicated that regardless of continuity of some types, proportional to change and influence of pottery tradition, this site, especially in the new city of Susiana was affected by these transformations and had cultural relations to other zones.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Susiana PlainGach-e Sangi Site, Pottery Comparison, Relative Chronology.
Introduction and Methodology
Pottery is the most durable data with stylistic and cultural variations, as well as its time period. If it is studied and analyzed within a regular framework, it can be used as reliable document in archeology. The chronological order of pottery is one of the foremost gains, so that a relative time of fabrication and precedence of texture can be found by comparing the given samples with the adjacent zones (Tohidi, 2007:122). Due to abundant and continuous production, it was always followed by transformations and innovations, especially in form and design, some of them emerged due to internal cultural change and growth over the time and another part appeared because of economic and cultural links with far and near communities (Yari & Talayee, 2005:62). Studying these properties in prehistoric period is an important evidence for relative chronology of sites and their comparison. Due to the importance of these data and their variation and frequency in archeological sites, many archeologists studied them in various dimensions (e.g., Majidzadeh, 1991; Alizadeh, 2002; Talayee, 2011). Gach-e Sangi Site (Gotvand city) located in Susiana plain was initially explored for training archeological students within trench I. Of course, numerous potteries were randomly collected during analysis of site surfaces (Derakhshi, 2011). This research studies prehistoric prominent potteries of the site, relative chronology, and situation and analysis of the site for the first time. The goal of studying potteries of Gach-e Sangi site was to acquire relative chronology of the site and determine its cultural relations with adjacent zones. Therefore, the prominent potteries obtained by both surface analysis and exploration site were compared only in terms of form and decoration, a method that is used for relative dating of the sites. Thus, using this comparative method for potteries, relative chronology of site was determined, which was consistent with the common chronology of Dez area and Central Susiana proposed by Delougaz and Kantor (1996), and corrected by Alizadeh (2003؛ 2008). Moreover, the site cultural relation with other zones was analyzed by the same comparative pottery method.
Geographical Situation and Research Background
Gach-e Sangi site is geographically located at the south of Gotvand city and beside a natural flood control channel leading to Karun river. This site was registered under No KS.173 (Adams, 1962), and analyzed by Wright (1969) and Johnson (1973) during previous archeological explorations. Finally, this site has excavated and surveyed in order to training archeological students. According to layer and feature system (trench I), 22 layers were identified, so that the surface layer to Layer 14 belonged to New Suse II, and Layers 15 to 22 included a combination of pottery evidence in New Suse II and New Susiana 2 (Derakhshi et al., 2015). Among the potteries under study, 86 potsherds were selected and studied comparatively.
Late Mid- Susiana (LMS)
Typology of the potteries in the mentioned phase includes long glasses decorated with vertical designs on external surface and zigzag designs on internal edge, large bowls with hachured lozenge, and ladder and zigzag designs. The existing designs on the above-mentioned forms are geometrical designs. Stylistic and technical similarities of this phase potteries indicate proximity to the key site and central location at Chogha Mish site (Delougaz & Kantor, 1996).
Late Susiana 1 (Ls1)
The potteries of this phase are very fine and well-made with a little sand and without temper in most cases. These types of potteries have usually beige to buff color on surfaces. The designs in this group also mainly includes geometrical themes. The extensive similarities of potteries in Late Susiana 1 confirms the relationship between lowland and highland regions.
Late Susiana 2 (LS2)
The pottery indexes in this phase include long glasses, and open and semi-circular bowls decorated with various geometrical designs. These potteries can be also compared with the ones in Suse I in Chogha Mish and upper phases of Jafarabad.
Conclusion
Comparative analysis of some of prominent potteries in Gach-e Sangi site, which has been feasible based on surface survey and excavation (Trench I), indicated that it has been dwelled incessantly since the Late Mid- Susiana Phase to Late Susa Phase 2 and this shows the importance of the site among eastern sites in Susiana plain and cultural continuity. It seems that Gach-e Sangi site was firstly formed in the Late Mid- Susiana beside an ancient natural flood control channel. Thus, the increased population followed by further prospecting for natural resources in less-known areas in the Mid- Susiana periods directly affected the occurrence of establishments of eastern Susiana plains, as well as this site. The pottery data of this phase was adequately found in Gach-e Sangi site simultaneously with Late Susiana 1 phase. Moreover, pottery similarities of the site with highland areas can be proved. The above-mentioned site still exists in Late Susiana 2 phase; however, this site is mainly related to central and western zones of Susiana plain in this phase. The results of comparative studies demonstrated that continuity or variations may not be only related to stylistic or technical changes in pottery tradition, but also they represent socioeconomic transformations.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2727_b200685e47dc52571c749575ebc4af88.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522A Totemic Study of Zoomorphic Motifs in the Civilization of the Halirood District of Jiroft (Third Millennium B.C.)A Totemic Study of Zoomorphic Motifs in the Civilization of the Halirood District of Jiroft (Third Millennium B.C.)5574272810.22084/nbsh.2019.15140.1671FARezaSehhat ManeshDepartment of Archaeology, Shoushtar Branch, Islamic Azad University, ShoshtarJournal Article20180405On the dishes obtianed from the civilization of the Halirood basin, were engraved various humans, plants, animals and geometric designs. Among them, animal schemes are prominent in terms of abundance, human creativity, artistic and ritual status. Accordingly, the main purpose of the article is the study and introduce animalistic motifs of civilization in the Halilrood, Jiroft, based on the objects which discovered and obtained from this civilization in light of the theory of Totem, and seeks to response the question: What are meanings the animalistic motifs of the Halilrood (Jiroft) civilization? A totemic study of animalistic motifs in the Halilrood basin creates a new understanding for the audience, and human actors in the Halilrood basin could have approaches from respect for holiness, taboo and fear for the carve of animals on objects. This research covering the field of history, archeology and psychology. Accordingly, the research data was provided with field research and library tools and based on the totemic theory deal with a combination of descriptive-analytical method. The statistical society consisted of 171 vases, 122 vases in Jiroft, “Jiroft; the oldest civilization of the east” (Majidzadeh, 2002), and 49 vases in the “Objects from the Jiroft treasury” (Piran, 2013). As total, 213 items were counted and divisions and study of the motifs also were done. The findings of the research indicate that animal motifs with 47.88% of the total number of motifs constitute the most abundant patterns in the Helilrood basin civilization, and in the next category geometric motifs with 20.65% and plant motifs with 12.67% were placed. Man-made patterns - animals that inserted in 15 dishes make up 11.73% percent of the motifs. Animal motifs fill with religious and religious nature, and it is likely that the civilized human being living in the Halilrood basin in the Carve of these animals, as well as the carve of humans on the dishes, has a look of respect and sanctity.
<strong>Keywords;</strong> Jiroft, Civilization, Halilrood, Totemism, Zoomorphic motifs.
Introduction
the relics which derived from the Halilrood civilization belonged to the first half of the 3<sup>rd</sup> millennium BC. They are important in terms of economic, cultural and artistic aspects. On the dishes were engraved various humans, plants, animals and geometric designs. Among them, animal schemes are prominent in terms of abundance, human creativity, artistic and ritual status. Their elegance and artistic value are so high that they represent the new style well known the Halilrood culture (Majidzadeh, 2008: 15).The Halilrood style is an artistic and real expression of the cultural and social life of Halilrood region. Man had long ties with nature and inspired of nature to express his aspirations. Nature was the pattern of human rituals, beliefs and practices. Hence, the engraved objects which derived from the civilization of Halilrood can be an interpreter of the natural, social and cultural life in this area. Accordingly, the motifs of animals constitute pivotal problems in the study.
Question
In the research on the civilization of Halilrood basin, motifs from different aspects have been considered, but their other rituals and totemic practices have been neglected. Hence, in the present article, the animal motifs of the Halilrood civilization have examined with the religious, social and totemic attitudes. The main purpose of the article is to study and introduce animalistic motifs of civilization in the Halilrood, based on the objects which discovered from this civilization in light of the theory of Totem, and seeks to response the question: What are meanings the animalistic motifs of Halilrood (Jiroft) civilization?
Research Hypothesis
A totemic study of animalistic motifs in Halilrood basin bring up a new understanding for the audience, and human being, probably, in the Halilrood basin could have approaches from respect for holiness, taboo and fear for the carve of animals on the objects.
Research Methodology
This research is an interdisciplinary study, covering the fields of history, archeology and psychology. The statistical society consisted of 171 vases, 122 vases in Jiroft, “Jiroft; the oldest civilization of the east” (Majidzadeh, 2002), and 49 vases in the “Objects from the Jiroft treasury” (Piran, 2013). As total, 213 items were counted and divisions and study of the motifs also were done.
Discussion
According to the author’s study, the statistical population was surveyed with 213 frequency on 171 dishes. In this study, it was determined that 102 animal schemes, 27 plant schemes, 8 simple schemes, 44 geometric schemes, 13 architectural schemes and 19 schemes of humans on the dishes of Hellerrood civilization have been designed (Majidzadeh, 2003, Piran, 1392).
One of the animal designs that is seen on the objects of the Halilrood region is the schemes of the cattle. It is observed in the Halilrood basin that peoples of the region by carving of human and cattle in one motif had greatest respect for the cattle. In one of the motifs human is placed on the knees and below the cattle and even part of his face is in contact with one of the cattle.
From the other animals that are imprinted on the objects in Halilrood basin are schemes of goats. The features of the carved goats in Halilrood basin is their horn, the goats have strong horns, and this can reflect the importance of horn motifs for human.
The schemes of snake in Jiroft’s art is seen in many different forms. By examining Jiroft soap stones, Snake can be considered as the most important artistic pattern of this civilization (Taheri, 1396: 254). Owing to fear, human being had the greatest respect for snake.
In the archeology museum of Jiroft, schemes of the Eagle and Snake, which designed alone or craved with an animal- usually snake. The actors reflect concept the triumph of eagle over snake. The mentioned struggle between eagle and snake originated from Sumerian rituals and the repetition of eagle schemes in the stone and bronze dishes of Halilrood basin illustrates the importance and sanctity of eagle as a symbol of heaven in their belief in these people (Agha Abbasi, 1389: 198, 202).
Conclusion
The findings of the research indicate that animal motifs with 47.88% of the total number of designs constitute the most abundant patterns in Helilrood basin civilization, and among the category of animal motifs, snake with 33.59% and thereafter scorpion with 18.75%, cow with 14.06%, leopard with 14.06%, eagle with 10.93% , Goats and rams (8.59%) and Lion (7.18%) were placed respectively. Design of mankind have applied with animals. Accompanying of mankind with animals indicate a type of respect, sanctity and fear. As for the relation between human and animals in these objects can represent a totemic study about them. In the transaction between human and animals, especially relations between human and cow and human and goat, cow regarded as a useful animal. Goat is respected for their horns as a strong beast. Moreover, the relation between snake and human as well as snake and other animals there is a type of fear and taboo. This relations also follow between snake and eagle, it seems the latter as a celestial animal take over snake as a terrestrial animal.On the dishes obtianed from the civilization of the Halirood basin, were engraved various humans, plants, animals and geometric designs. Among them, animal schemes are prominent in terms of abundance, human creativity, artistic and ritual status. Accordingly, the main purpose of the article is the study and introduce animalistic motifs of civilization in the Halilrood, Jiroft, based on the objects which discovered and obtained from this civilization in light of the theory of Totem, and seeks to response the question: What are meanings the animalistic motifs of the Halilrood (Jiroft) civilization? A totemic study of animalistic motifs in the Halilrood basin creates a new understanding for the audience, and human actors in the Halilrood basin could have approaches from respect for holiness, taboo and fear for the carve of animals on objects. This research covering the field of history, archeology and psychology. Accordingly, the research data was provided with field research and library tools and based on the totemic theory deal with a combination of descriptive-analytical method. The statistical society consisted of 171 vases, 122 vases in Jiroft, “Jiroft; the oldest civilization of the east” (Majidzadeh, 2002), and 49 vases in the “Objects from the Jiroft treasury” (Piran, 2013). As total, 213 items were counted and divisions and study of the motifs also were done. The findings of the research indicate that animal motifs with 47.88% of the total number of motifs constitute the most abundant patterns in the Helilrood basin civilization, and in the next category geometric motifs with 20.65% and plant motifs with 12.67% were placed. Man-made patterns - animals that inserted in 15 dishes make up 11.73% percent of the motifs. Animal motifs fill with religious and religious nature, and it is likely that the civilized human being living in the Halilrood basin in the Carve of these animals, as well as the carve of humans on the dishes, has a look of respect and sanctity.
<strong>Keywords;</strong> Jiroft, Civilization, Halilrood, Totemism, Zoomorphic motifs.
Introduction
the relics which derived from the Halilrood civilization belonged to the first half of the 3<sup>rd</sup> millennium BC. They are important in terms of economic, cultural and artistic aspects. On the dishes were engraved various humans, plants, animals and geometric designs. Among them, animal schemes are prominent in terms of abundance, human creativity, artistic and ritual status. Their elegance and artistic value are so high that they represent the new style well known the Halilrood culture (Majidzadeh, 2008: 15).The Halilrood style is an artistic and real expression of the cultural and social life of Halilrood region. Man had long ties with nature and inspired of nature to express his aspirations. Nature was the pattern of human rituals, beliefs and practices. Hence, the engraved objects which derived from the civilization of Halilrood can be an interpreter of the natural, social and cultural life in this area. Accordingly, the motifs of animals constitute pivotal problems in the study.
Question
In the research on the civilization of Halilrood basin, motifs from different aspects have been considered, but their other rituals and totemic practices have been neglected. Hence, in the present article, the animal motifs of the Halilrood civilization have examined with the religious, social and totemic attitudes. The main purpose of the article is to study and introduce animalistic motifs of civilization in the Halilrood, based on the objects which discovered from this civilization in light of the theory of Totem, and seeks to response the question: What are meanings the animalistic motifs of Halilrood (Jiroft) civilization?
Research Hypothesis
A totemic study of animalistic motifs in Halilrood basin bring up a new understanding for the audience, and human being, probably, in the Halilrood basin could have approaches from respect for holiness, taboo and fear for the carve of animals on the objects.
Research Methodology
This research is an interdisciplinary study, covering the fields of history, archeology and psychology. The statistical society consisted of 171 vases, 122 vases in Jiroft, “Jiroft; the oldest civilization of the east” (Majidzadeh, 2002), and 49 vases in the “Objects from the Jiroft treasury” (Piran, 2013). As total, 213 items were counted and divisions and study of the motifs also were done.
Discussion
According to the author’s study, the statistical population was surveyed with 213 frequency on 171 dishes. In this study, it was determined that 102 animal schemes, 27 plant schemes, 8 simple schemes, 44 geometric schemes, 13 architectural schemes and 19 schemes of humans on the dishes of Hellerrood civilization have been designed (Majidzadeh, 2003, Piran, 1392).
One of the animal designs that is seen on the objects of the Halilrood region is the schemes of the cattle. It is observed in the Halilrood basin that peoples of the region by carving of human and cattle in one motif had greatest respect for the cattle. In one of the motifs human is placed on the knees and below the cattle and even part of his face is in contact with one of the cattle.
From the other animals that are imprinted on the objects in Halilrood basin are schemes of goats. The features of the carved goats in Halilrood basin is their horn, the goats have strong horns, and this can reflect the importance of horn motifs for human.
The schemes of snake in Jiroft’s art is seen in many different forms. By examining Jiroft soap stones, Snake can be considered as the most important artistic pattern of this civilization (Taheri, 1396: 254). Owing to fear, human being had the greatest respect for snake.
In the archeology museum of Jiroft, schemes of the Eagle and Snake, which designed alone or craved with an animal- usually snake. The actors reflect concept the triumph of eagle over snake. The mentioned struggle between eagle and snake originated from Sumerian rituals and the repetition of eagle schemes in the stone and bronze dishes of Halilrood basin illustrates the importance and sanctity of eagle as a symbol of heaven in their belief in these people (Agha Abbasi, 1389: 198, 202).
Conclusion
The findings of the research indicate that animal motifs with 47.88% of the total number of designs constitute the most abundant patterns in Helilrood basin civilization, and among the category of animal motifs, snake with 33.59% and thereafter scorpion with 18.75%, cow with 14.06%, leopard with 14.06%, eagle with 10.93% , Goats and rams (8.59%) and Lion (7.18%) were placed respectively. Design of mankind have applied with animals. Accompanying of mankind with animals indicate a type of respect, sanctity and fear. As for the relation between human and animals in these objects can represent a totemic study about them. In the transaction between human and animals, especially relations between human and cow and human and goat, cow regarded as a useful animal. Goat is respected for their horns as a strong beast. Moreover, the relation between snake and human as well as snake and other animals there is a type of fear and taboo. This relations also follow between snake and eagle, it seems the latter as a celestial animal take over snake as a terrestrial animal.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2728_38018fffa8e9bee83b0aaa02d76ec90f.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Achaemenid Presence in the Transcaucasia (South Caucasus) and Cultural Area of Black Sea Based on Architectural FindingsAchaemenid Presence in the Transcaucasia (South Caucasus) and Cultural Area of Black Sea Based on Architectural Findings7594272910.22084/nbsh.2019.16713.1772FASabaBeikzadehM.A. (History of Art)FarshidIravani GhadimAssociate Professor, Department of Archaeology Faculty of Conservation Art University of IsfahanJournal Article20180710New conducted archaeological excavations in the cultural area of Black Sea and South Caucasus indicate accumulation of Achaemenid artistic data and the effects of Persian style in architecture that include palaces, columned halls and room, gates, and rock cut tombs. Achaemenid traces and the traces which related to the new art families in the cultural area of Black Sea were taken from different regions such as Anatolia, Ukraine, Russia, Bulgaria, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. At Satrapi of Thrace, Borysa and Doriskos along with a royal residence were built. In Pontus and Oluz Höyük, Achaemenid palaces with column base were made; in Qaracamirli, Azerbaijan, east and central Georgia, historical monuments similar to Achaemenid cases and rockcut tombs affected by Achaemenid architecture have identified in Anatolia. We see a sort of unity in construction and decoration in the obtained works of cultural area of Black Sea that, due to the volume of Achaemenid architecture works, the need for a comprehensive, scientific, and objective research will pose in this regard. The questions raised in this study are: 1- How does the Achaemenid art and architecture affect the architecture of the Black Sea and the South Caucasus in the Achaemenid era? 2- How to form the art style “Ionic - Achaemenid” on the architectural monuments of the cultural zone of the Black Sea and the South Caucasus in the Achaemenid era? Are. The results of this research show that following the Achaemenid court style, the Achaemenid architecture has been harmonized in the field of study. Also, in the western part of Anatolia, after the formation of a new artistic style called Ionian-Achaemenid, it has had a direct impact on the architecture of this period in the field of study. This study has been fundamental. By descriptive-analysis method and documentation of data based on quantitative methods and analyzing data, Achaemenid architecture analysis will be discussed in the field of study.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Cultural area of the Black Sea, South Caucasus (Transcaucasia), Achaemenid Architecture.
Introduction
The great Cyrus after the conquest of Lydia and the observation of the magnificent religious buildings and the highly developed architecture of those lands, the thought of creating an appropriate capital came to his mind and a group of Ionic and Lydian stonemasons were brought to the Persia. The footprints of these architects can be seen in Pasargad, which include elements such as platforms, columns and clamps used for fastening the stone blocks. Because the Achaemenid architecture has a certain harmony and proportion and also the most important building of this art period is the majestic palaces of the Achaemenid kings, it could be considered as an art index of this era. This artistic index is recognizable in the Achaemenid dominated lands, which can be cited as an indication of the construction of the Achaemenid nobility or the influence of Achaemenid architecture. Also, in the central part of the Black Sea coastal regions, archeological finds belonging directly to the Achaemenids or they say the Achaemenid influence on them (Dönmez, 2007: 108). The discovered traces which belong to pre-historic, beginning historic and historic era in the cultural region of Black Sea show the importance of this cultural region in different ages. With Cyrus conquest of Lydia and the conquest by Darius I (514 Bc) and his war with Scythians of south Danube and the occupation of Thrace region a new era of culture and art began.
Objectives and Necessity of Research
The purpose of this research is to identify the presence of Achaemenids in the South Caucasus and the Black Sea cultural area. Considerable volume of Achaemenid architecture works in the field of study and identify a kind of unity in the construction and decorating of these works the need for comprehensive, scientific and targeted research.
<strong>Research Question:</strong> Questions raised in this study are: 1-How does the Achaemenid art and architecture affect the architecture of the Black Sea and the South Caucasus in the Achaemenid era? 2- How does the formation of the Ionian-Achaemenid artistic style on the architectural monuments of the Black Sea region and the South Caucasus in the Achaemenid era?
<strong>Research Method:</strong> The issue of this research is how the Achaemenid architecture is synonymous with the cultural zone of the Black Sea and the South Caucasus. This study has been fundamental. By descriptive-analysis method and documentation of data based on quantitative methods and analyzing data, Achaemenid architecture analysis will be discussed in the field of study.
Discussion
Architectural works identified in the South Caucasus is include rock cut tombs, palaces, columned halls, gates and temples.
Based on the investigation carried out in the study area, four rocky tombs were identified: in Paphlagonia in Donalar, Salarkoy, Terelik and Afırözü. The tomb plan is a combination of Ionian and Achaemenid and local elements, but independent of the progress of other places in Anatolia. Rock-cut tombs display Achaemenid symbols in Paphlagonia and also shows the continuation of that in Hellenic Paphlagonia.
Based on the investigation carried out in the study area, Five palaces included Sari-Tepe palace, Gumbati Palace, a historiacal building complex in Benjamin, Qarajamirli (Ghorban Tepe) palace and Oluz Höyük palace were identified. The plans of these palaces as well as small findings represent the remains of Achaemenid culture.
Based on the investigation carried out in the study area Two columned halls included Argishti-Hinili and Erebuni columned halls were identified. These columned halls and pottery found at these places, which closely follow the forms of Achaemenid pottery, show close links with the Achaemenid centers.
Based on the investigation carried out in the study area, One propyleion was identified in Qarajamirli.
In this place, the column base, which is a typical piece of the Achaemenid architectural decoration and examples of that known in Susa and Persepolis. Also the large clay brick building, that plan and its dimensions are close to similar buildings in Pasargad and Susa.
Five temples included samadlo ritual tower and the temples of Zikhiagora, Sairkhe temple, Zela temple and Oluz Höyük temple were identified. Found Items are similar to Achaemenid architecture.
Conclusion
Although the Achaemenid architecture has always been influenced by the other tribes architecture of the specific regions in its realm, but if we call that imitation, then this imitation has not been passive act, and it could be said that the architecture of Iran during the Achaemenid was an eclectic kind of art. Some scholars named that court style or royal style.
Now based on so far archeological founds associated with the Achaemenid territory around the Black Sea, Caucasus and the South Caucasus, new sort of art forms in this area. And this new art is a combination of the native art of the conquered regions and the main Achaemenian centers of the time. New archaeological excavations in this cultural region represent the accumulation of Achaemenid culture material and Persian influences in the architecture.
The art of Satrapi, due to the influence of the Achaemenid art of the court as well as the additions and omissions, created a new kind of style that could be called artistic style of “Ionic-Achaemenid” work. This new style is believed to have been emerged in the western part of Anatolia and Cyprus and then have extended to the entire Achaemenid Empire.New conducted archaeological excavations in the cultural area of Black Sea and South Caucasus indicate accumulation of Achaemenid artistic data and the effects of Persian style in architecture that include palaces, columned halls and room, gates, and rock cut tombs. Achaemenid traces and the traces which related to the new art families in the cultural area of Black Sea were taken from different regions such as Anatolia, Ukraine, Russia, Bulgaria, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. At Satrapi of Thrace, Borysa and Doriskos along with a royal residence were built. In Pontus and Oluz Höyük, Achaemenid palaces with column base were made; in Qaracamirli, Azerbaijan, east and central Georgia, historical monuments similar to Achaemenid cases and rockcut tombs affected by Achaemenid architecture have identified in Anatolia. We see a sort of unity in construction and decoration in the obtained works of cultural area of Black Sea that, due to the volume of Achaemenid architecture works, the need for a comprehensive, scientific, and objective research will pose in this regard. The questions raised in this study are: 1- How does the Achaemenid art and architecture affect the architecture of the Black Sea and the South Caucasus in the Achaemenid era? 2- How to form the art style “Ionic - Achaemenid” on the architectural monuments of the cultural zone of the Black Sea and the South Caucasus in the Achaemenid era? Are. The results of this research show that following the Achaemenid court style, the Achaemenid architecture has been harmonized in the field of study. Also, in the western part of Anatolia, after the formation of a new artistic style called Ionian-Achaemenid, it has had a direct impact on the architecture of this period in the field of study. This study has been fundamental. By descriptive-analysis method and documentation of data based on quantitative methods and analyzing data, Achaemenid architecture analysis will be discussed in the field of study.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Cultural area of the Black Sea, South Caucasus (Transcaucasia), Achaemenid Architecture.
Introduction
The great Cyrus after the conquest of Lydia and the observation of the magnificent religious buildings and the highly developed architecture of those lands, the thought of creating an appropriate capital came to his mind and a group of Ionic and Lydian stonemasons were brought to the Persia. The footprints of these architects can be seen in Pasargad, which include elements such as platforms, columns and clamps used for fastening the stone blocks. Because the Achaemenid architecture has a certain harmony and proportion and also the most important building of this art period is the majestic palaces of the Achaemenid kings, it could be considered as an art index of this era. This artistic index is recognizable in the Achaemenid dominated lands, which can be cited as an indication of the construction of the Achaemenid nobility or the influence of Achaemenid architecture. Also, in the central part of the Black Sea coastal regions, archeological finds belonging directly to the Achaemenids or they say the Achaemenid influence on them (Dönmez, 2007: 108). The discovered traces which belong to pre-historic, beginning historic and historic era in the cultural region of Black Sea show the importance of this cultural region in different ages. With Cyrus conquest of Lydia and the conquest by Darius I (514 Bc) and his war with Scythians of south Danube and the occupation of Thrace region a new era of culture and art began.
Objectives and Necessity of Research
The purpose of this research is to identify the presence of Achaemenids in the South Caucasus and the Black Sea cultural area. Considerable volume of Achaemenid architecture works in the field of study and identify a kind of unity in the construction and decorating of these works the need for comprehensive, scientific and targeted research.
<strong>Research Question:</strong> Questions raised in this study are: 1-How does the Achaemenid art and architecture affect the architecture of the Black Sea and the South Caucasus in the Achaemenid era? 2- How does the formation of the Ionian-Achaemenid artistic style on the architectural monuments of the Black Sea region and the South Caucasus in the Achaemenid era?
<strong>Research Method:</strong> The issue of this research is how the Achaemenid architecture is synonymous with the cultural zone of the Black Sea and the South Caucasus. This study has been fundamental. By descriptive-analysis method and documentation of data based on quantitative methods and analyzing data, Achaemenid architecture analysis will be discussed in the field of study.
Discussion
Architectural works identified in the South Caucasus is include rock cut tombs, palaces, columned halls, gates and temples.
Based on the investigation carried out in the study area, four rocky tombs were identified: in Paphlagonia in Donalar, Salarkoy, Terelik and Afırözü. The tomb plan is a combination of Ionian and Achaemenid and local elements, but independent of the progress of other places in Anatolia. Rock-cut tombs display Achaemenid symbols in Paphlagonia and also shows the continuation of that in Hellenic Paphlagonia.
Based on the investigation carried out in the study area, Five palaces included Sari-Tepe palace, Gumbati Palace, a historiacal building complex in Benjamin, Qarajamirli (Ghorban Tepe) palace and Oluz Höyük palace were identified. The plans of these palaces as well as small findings represent the remains of Achaemenid culture.
Based on the investigation carried out in the study area Two columned halls included Argishti-Hinili and Erebuni columned halls were identified. These columned halls and pottery found at these places, which closely follow the forms of Achaemenid pottery, show close links with the Achaemenid centers.
Based on the investigation carried out in the study area, One propyleion was identified in Qarajamirli.
In this place, the column base, which is a typical piece of the Achaemenid architectural decoration and examples of that known in Susa and Persepolis. Also the large clay brick building, that plan and its dimensions are close to similar buildings in Pasargad and Susa.
Five temples included samadlo ritual tower and the temples of Zikhiagora, Sairkhe temple, Zela temple and Oluz Höyük temple were identified. Found Items are similar to Achaemenid architecture.
Conclusion
Although the Achaemenid architecture has always been influenced by the other tribes architecture of the specific regions in its realm, but if we call that imitation, then this imitation has not been passive act, and it could be said that the architecture of Iran during the Achaemenid was an eclectic kind of art. Some scholars named that court style or royal style.
Now based on so far archeological founds associated with the Achaemenid territory around the Black Sea, Caucasus and the South Caucasus, new sort of art forms in this area. And this new art is a combination of the native art of the conquered regions and the main Achaemenian centers of the time. New archaeological excavations in this cultural region represent the accumulation of Achaemenid culture material and Persian influences in the architecture.
The art of Satrapi, due to the influence of the Achaemenid art of the court as well as the additions and omissions, created a new kind of style that could be called artistic style of “Ionic-Achaemenid” work. This new style is believed to have been emerged in the western part of Anatolia and Cyprus and then have extended to the entire Achaemenid Empire.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2729_6031df4987d5e0f9d4198fecad16e72b.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Adaptation of Local Calendars to Achaemenid Empire Bureaucratic SystemAdaptation of Local Calendars to Achaemenid Empire Bureaucratic System95114273010.22084/nbsh.2019.15562.1707FALeilaMakvandiAssistant Professor, Archaeology Department, University of Kashan0000-0001-6830-907XHamidrezaPaighambariAssistant Professor, History Department, Persian Gulf University, BushehrJournal Article20180202Calendars are one of the main bases of the administrative affairs of ancient archives in all administrative structures. What distinguishes the Achaemenid imperial administrative structure from other ancient states is the variety of archives in this period in terms of script, language and calendar. At the center of the kingdom, the Old Persian and Elamite calendars were used. In the Mesopotamia and Jewish islands on the Nile, Babylonian calendar and in Egypt, Egyptian calendar was used. Despite the fact that in correspondence between different archives a standard calendar was not used, the main question of the present research is how Achaemenians coordinated these calendars? In order to answer this question, the first calendars in this period based on the royal inscriptions and Persepolis archives along with Mesopotamia and Aramaic documents from Egypt and Bacteria are introduced, and then the ways in which these calendars are adapted in administrative documents have been investigated. The hypothesis of this paper is that the Achaemenians tried to adapt different calendars without requiring different parts of the kingdom to use the same calendar. Since the Old Persian, Elamite and Babylon calendars had the same structures –they were lunisolar, in which the lunar months and the solar year were calculated– in order to begin the year at the spring equinox, it was necessary to add intercalary months to the calendar during the year. In Mesopotamia and Elam, the addition of the intercalary month was influenced by political factors. However, in this study, it is suggested that the Achaemenians coordinated the local calendars in their administrative system by mathematical and astronomical calculations and by the addition of the intercalary. The best evidence for this claim is the Egyptian administrative documents, in which, in coordination with the Imperial bureaucracy and along with the traditional solar calendar, the lunisolar dating is also used.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Achaemenid, Old Persian Calendar, Babylonian Calendar, Egyptian Calendar, Intercalary Month.
Introduction
Achaemenid Empire dominated a vast territory with a variety of ethnicities, languages and cultures; each had its own traditional script and Calendar. They did not directly interfere in the internal affairs of the dominated communities, except in those cases which maintaining order was necessary. In this period, local customs such as traditional calendars continued. But this diversity creates problems in the administrative affairs. That is, various types of chronology, made correspondence between satrapies difficult, and it seemed necessary to equalize calendars, especially in cases of the New Year and the year of accession. For example, in the royal inscriptions and the Persepolis archives, there are three types of chronological records (Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian). Also, the type of Calendar in the Achaemenid Aramaic texts from Bactria, in the south-eastern part of Empire, is Babylonian.
The question of this research is how did the Achaemenians match the different local Calendars? Was there a standard calendar used in correspondence between different archives of the Achaemenid Empire?
Research Method
This research has a theoretical nature and tries to explain how the Achaemenid administrative structure worked. We used the recent academic researches and theories to study on Calendars issues in this period. The research method is descriptive-analytic and includes the study of published administrative archival documents from all over the Achaemenid realm.
Discussion
Among the whole of Achaemenid royal inscriptions, Bisotun is more important in terms of information about the technic of Chronology. The inscription is written in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian languages, and Darius I expresses the events in each three versions of text with chronology (Kent, 1953: 116-135); 20 dates are given. This inscription clearly illustrates the diversity of Calendars during the Achaemenid period (Basello, 2006: 22; de Blois, 2006: 44). Besides, The Persepolis fortification archives should be mentioned, which are mainly in Elamite. Whether in Bisotun or in the Persepolis fortification archives, although local Calendars are used, all are match in months and the time of king’s accession.
Taghizadeh repeatedly points out that the Elamite calendar is derived from the Babylonia, and it is likely that the Persian calendar has shown a great similarity to the Babylonian calendar (Taghizadeh, 1316: 90-83; 1341: 51-48). But Rainer emphasizes that the Babylonian and Elamite calendar were not coincident (Reiner, 1973), and the comparative comparison by Basello (2002) suggests that they did not conform before the Achaemenid period. So, it is more likely that, as De Blois also expressed (De Blois, 2006: 42), the Persians have matched and coordinated these calendars.
In royal inscriptions and administrative documents, the king’s rule is the base of chronology. It is so important to mention that in Old Persian and Babylonian calendar, New Year began from the beginning of the spring, but in the Egyptian calendar, New Year was in the late autumn. All of the king’s accessions were not in the first month of the New Year; so, the year of the king might have been a different number in the each calendar. How did the Achaemenid bureau match the king’s time of rule with the annual calendars?
The Achaemenians, based on administrative texts from Babylonia and other Imperial Centers, used the Babylonian royal tradition of chronology. In this way, the first year of the King’s rule was calculated from the beginning of New Year, but surely they did not come to power all at the beginning of the year. In this case, if a king came to power during the year, it would not be calculated for the first year of his rule. It was called “šanat reš šarruti,” and the first year of its rule was calculated from the beginning of the New Year (Dandamaev & Lukonin, 2004: 291).
Conclusion
There was no unified Calendar system in the Achaemenid Empire. In all the archives of this period, for various matters, including salaries of employees and workers, religious affairs, construction, purchase and sale of land and merchandise, and other current affairs, as usual, the date and time of registration were recorded. The study of the methods of dating in the texts of these archives shows that, as a rule, dating was based on the great king’s rule year and the month, and rarely mentioned the day. All local calendars were perfectly matched; for example, Egyptian administrative documents of this period have lunisolar date, which shows the effects of the Achaemenid bureaucratic system.
The implementation of these Calendars requires finesse and regular communication with the Imperial Centers. It seems that the scribes were trained for this work, and it is unlikely that they would receive a definite plan from the administrative centers.Calendars are one of the main bases of the administrative affairs of ancient archives in all administrative structures. What distinguishes the Achaemenid imperial administrative structure from other ancient states is the variety of archives in this period in terms of script, language and calendar. At the center of the kingdom, the Old Persian and Elamite calendars were used. In the Mesopotamia and Jewish islands on the Nile, Babylonian calendar and in Egypt, Egyptian calendar was used. Despite the fact that in correspondence between different archives a standard calendar was not used, the main question of the present research is how Achaemenians coordinated these calendars? In order to answer this question, the first calendars in this period based on the royal inscriptions and Persepolis archives along with Mesopotamia and Aramaic documents from Egypt and Bacteria are introduced, and then the ways in which these calendars are adapted in administrative documents have been investigated. The hypothesis of this paper is that the Achaemenians tried to adapt different calendars without requiring different parts of the kingdom to use the same calendar. Since the Old Persian, Elamite and Babylon calendars had the same structures –they were lunisolar, in which the lunar months and the solar year were calculated– in order to begin the year at the spring equinox, it was necessary to add intercalary months to the calendar during the year. In Mesopotamia and Elam, the addition of the intercalary month was influenced by political factors. However, in this study, it is suggested that the Achaemenians coordinated the local calendars in their administrative system by mathematical and astronomical calculations and by the addition of the intercalary. The best evidence for this claim is the Egyptian administrative documents, in which, in coordination with the Imperial bureaucracy and along with the traditional solar calendar, the lunisolar dating is also used.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Achaemenid, Old Persian Calendar, Babylonian Calendar, Egyptian Calendar, Intercalary Month.
Introduction
Achaemenid Empire dominated a vast territory with a variety of ethnicities, languages and cultures; each had its own traditional script and Calendar. They did not directly interfere in the internal affairs of the dominated communities, except in those cases which maintaining order was necessary. In this period, local customs such as traditional calendars continued. But this diversity creates problems in the administrative affairs. That is, various types of chronology, made correspondence between satrapies difficult, and it seemed necessary to equalize calendars, especially in cases of the New Year and the year of accession. For example, in the royal inscriptions and the Persepolis archives, there are three types of chronological records (Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian). Also, the type of Calendar in the Achaemenid Aramaic texts from Bactria, in the south-eastern part of Empire, is Babylonian.
The question of this research is how did the Achaemenians match the different local Calendars? Was there a standard calendar used in correspondence between different archives of the Achaemenid Empire?
Research Method
This research has a theoretical nature and tries to explain how the Achaemenid administrative structure worked. We used the recent academic researches and theories to study on Calendars issues in this period. The research method is descriptive-analytic and includes the study of published administrative archival documents from all over the Achaemenid realm.
Discussion
Among the whole of Achaemenid royal inscriptions, Bisotun is more important in terms of information about the technic of Chronology. The inscription is written in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian languages, and Darius I expresses the events in each three versions of text with chronology (Kent, 1953: 116-135); 20 dates are given. This inscription clearly illustrates the diversity of Calendars during the Achaemenid period (Basello, 2006: 22; de Blois, 2006: 44). Besides, The Persepolis fortification archives should be mentioned, which are mainly in Elamite. Whether in Bisotun or in the Persepolis fortification archives, although local Calendars are used, all are match in months and the time of king’s accession.
Taghizadeh repeatedly points out that the Elamite calendar is derived from the Babylonia, and it is likely that the Persian calendar has shown a great similarity to the Babylonian calendar (Taghizadeh, 1316: 90-83; 1341: 51-48). But Rainer emphasizes that the Babylonian and Elamite calendar were not coincident (Reiner, 1973), and the comparative comparison by Basello (2002) suggests that they did not conform before the Achaemenid period. So, it is more likely that, as De Blois also expressed (De Blois, 2006: 42), the Persians have matched and coordinated these calendars.
In royal inscriptions and administrative documents, the king’s rule is the base of chronology. It is so important to mention that in Old Persian and Babylonian calendar, New Year began from the beginning of the spring, but in the Egyptian calendar, New Year was in the late autumn. All of the king’s accessions were not in the first month of the New Year; so, the year of the king might have been a different number in the each calendar. How did the Achaemenid bureau match the king’s time of rule with the annual calendars?
The Achaemenians, based on administrative texts from Babylonia and other Imperial Centers, used the Babylonian royal tradition of chronology. In this way, the first year of the King’s rule was calculated from the beginning of New Year, but surely they did not come to power all at the beginning of the year. In this case, if a king came to power during the year, it would not be calculated for the first year of his rule. It was called “šanat reš šarruti,” and the first year of its rule was calculated from the beginning of the New Year (Dandamaev & Lukonin, 2004: 291).
Conclusion
There was no unified Calendar system in the Achaemenid Empire. In all the archives of this period, for various matters, including salaries of employees and workers, religious affairs, construction, purchase and sale of land and merchandise, and other current affairs, as usual, the date and time of registration were recorded. The study of the methods of dating in the texts of these archives shows that, as a rule, dating was based on the great king’s rule year and the month, and rarely mentioned the day. All local calendars were perfectly matched; for example, Egyptian administrative documents of this period have lunisolar date, which shows the effects of the Achaemenid bureaucratic system.
The implementation of these Calendars requires finesse and regular communication with the Imperial Centers. It seems that the scribes were trained for this work, and it is unlikely that they would receive a definite plan from the administrative centers.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2730_7b31418b495c374121b4170f05667328.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Authentication of the Silver Coins Related to Achaemenid Era Based on Ancient Archaeometallurgical StudiesAuthentication of the Silver Coins Related to Achaemenid Era Based on Ancient Archaeometallurgical Studies115128273110.22084/nbsh.2019.16295.1742FAMasoudB. KASIRIAssociate professor, Faculty of Applied Arts, Tabriz Islamic Art UniversityZeynabMohtashamM.A. at Archaeometry, Faculty of Applied Arts, Tabriz Islamic Art UniversityRahimVelayatiAssistant Professor, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Literature and Human SciencesJournal Article20180505Despite the brilliant history of Iran, as one of the first promoters of coinage and the worthy collections of coins remained from ancient times, the cognitive study as an independent kind of science or as the historian supplement studies, was at less attention in Iran. In this research, 10 samples of silver coins related to the Achaemenian dynasty, were selected from a big collection of 57 pieces, which is kept in Pars Museum of Shiraz. This collection were recorded from the thieves of cultural relics in Marvdasht of Fars province in 2009, and was used for the elemental analysis at this article. As these coins are precious museum objects, sampling is very restricted, and the analytical method must be as non-destructive as possible. In different laboratories around the world, extensive methods of analysis are used in order to quantitative analysis of the elements, including particle induced X-ray emission spectroscopy (PIXE). This facility is available in Iran, so due to limitations in sampling and in using the other destructive methods in this study, PIXE analytical method was selected to be used in the analyzing process. Since the amount of metal elements plays an important role in determining the authentication of the Achaemenid coins, the percent of following elements were measured in the coin samples: Aluminum (Al), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Calcium (Ca), Titanium (Ti), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Silver (Ag), Lead (Pb), and, Gold (Au). This assessment was based on the assumption that the trace elements present in the sample, especially gold, could be considered as an indicator of the authenticity of the coins. To confirm the results obtained, more comprehensive studies, trying to the other sophisticated non-destructive methods, study of the phases, and metallurgical studies, are recommended.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Authentication, PIXE, Silver Coins, Shekel, Achaemenid.
Introduction
Most of the museums and even the collectors of artistic works are nowadays faced with fake and fraudulent works, while dealing with the crisis of counterfeiting, fraud and harassment is very important for the understanding of the events of the past based on the works of art. Museums and art collections in Iran, since most of their work in the past has been obtained via archaeological excavations, did not suffer much from fake works. But todays, as the destructive aspect of history and culture of the country, they face a huge amount of forging of ancient works in the contemporary sense, which has a history of about 100-150 years. These works have been gathered from the thieves in museums, and the continuation of this trend will have concerns about the authenticity of works in the museums. Therefore, the exact identification and recognition of these art works by using scientific and laboratory studies, before entering into the museums, is very important. The cognitive study is considered as a noticeable sample of interdisciplinary kind of study, including some areas of studies such as typology, linguistics, chronometry, geometry, chemistry and physics, as the related sciences. Moreover, the design information on the works plays an important role in recognition of the politic, economic and social status of the ancient societies.
Because of the metal resistance of the coins, they will be less affected by the environmental degradation factors comparing to the other historic and ancient artifacts; and in many cases, they remain in almost good quality. This advantage sometimes causes bugs in authenticity of some collections which were not obtained from the scientific archaeological excavations. Thus, it was necessary to deal with this issue, due to the limited interdisciplinary studies in this field.
Reviewing the related literature has revealed that there has not been any substantive and codified research on the authentication of coins assigned to the Achaemenid period. In the present research, 10 silver coins of the Achaemenid period, which were kept at the Pars Shiraz Museum and were recorded from the cultural thieves in the city of Marvdasht of Fars, in 2009. In order to identify their authenticity, their elemental composition were studied by using PIXE technique, and the results obtained were compared to that of Achaemenid genuine coins of National Museum of Iran. The physical properties of coins, including motifs and their weight, have also been studied.
Results and Discussion
In order to determine the authenticity of the sample coins, the determination of the amount of elements by the PIXE chemical analysis method, and the study of existing designs and their weights, along with the comparison of the results obtained to that of the research on the Achaemenid genuine coins in the National Museum of Iran were used.
In measuring the concentration of the elements in the samples by PIXE technique, certain X-rays are directly irradiated onto the samples, where they interact with the sample atoms, which consequently, this technique does not require the sample preparation with certain materials, and the coins studied must just be cleaned. Therefore, for the comparison of the XRS results of the samples with that of the Achaemenid genuine coins, the concentrations of four main metallic elements, Pb, Ag, Au, and Cu were considered.
In the results of the elemental analysis, high and almost identical silver (98-99%) was observed in the studied coins. As a result, it can be said that the coins of interest are coins of the Achaemenid period, often coined in the same mint.
The pattern of dispersion of the minor elements in the sample can also represent the same source of ore used for their preparation and coinage, indicating the authenticity of the coins studied. So, the amount of the selected minor elements has also be measured by PIXE technique.
From the dispersion diagrams of the sub-elements in silver coins, the copper and lead dispersion graph is important to study. This diagram has showed that the dispersion of lead and copper in silver coins has a good overlap with the dispersion of these elements in the Achaemenid genuine coins, which may indicate the same ore used in the preparation and coinage of these coins.
Conclusions
In this study, the elemental analysis of the samples was realized by PIXE technique and the results obtained were compared to that of the Achaemenid genuine coins of the National Museum of Iran, which have been analyzed by Olyaee and her colleagues in 2015.
The dispersion pattern of silver and gold elements in both sets of coins showed a similar and almost identical pattern, which shows that both groups of coins are similar in terms of primary ore and coinage conditions. The statistical analysis of the results showed that metal elements such as silver, lead, gold, copper and the other trace elements in the sample of this study have similar grade changes to that of obtained from the analysis of 27 Achemenid genuine coins, where this could be a sign of authenticity of them; show probably the same provenance of ore used, mining technologies, and the similar multiplication method.
The archaeological studies of designs and weight of the samples, also confirms their similarity to that of the genuine Achaemenid Coins. The survey of literature revealed that the Achaemenid silver coins have the weight limited to 5.5±0.2 g, where the measurements of the coins showed that all the studied samples obey this limit of Akhaemenid coins weight.Despite the brilliant history of Iran, as one of the first promoters of coinage and the worthy collections of coins remained from ancient times, the cognitive study as an independent kind of science or as the historian supplement studies, was at less attention in Iran. In this research, 10 samples of silver coins related to the Achaemenian dynasty, were selected from a big collection of 57 pieces, which is kept in Pars Museum of Shiraz. This collection were recorded from the thieves of cultural relics in Marvdasht of Fars province in 2009, and was used for the elemental analysis at this article. As these coins are precious museum objects, sampling is very restricted, and the analytical method must be as non-destructive as possible. In different laboratories around the world, extensive methods of analysis are used in order to quantitative analysis of the elements, including particle induced X-ray emission spectroscopy (PIXE). This facility is available in Iran, so due to limitations in sampling and in using the other destructive methods in this study, PIXE analytical method was selected to be used in the analyzing process. Since the amount of metal elements plays an important role in determining the authentication of the Achaemenid coins, the percent of following elements were measured in the coin samples: Aluminum (Al), Sulfur (S), Chlorine (Cl), Calcium (Ca), Titanium (Ti), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Silver (Ag), Lead (Pb), and, Gold (Au). This assessment was based on the assumption that the trace elements present in the sample, especially gold, could be considered as an indicator of the authenticity of the coins. To confirm the results obtained, more comprehensive studies, trying to the other sophisticated non-destructive methods, study of the phases, and metallurgical studies, are recommended.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Authentication, PIXE, Silver Coins, Shekel, Achaemenid.
Introduction
Most of the museums and even the collectors of artistic works are nowadays faced with fake and fraudulent works, while dealing with the crisis of counterfeiting, fraud and harassment is very important for the understanding of the events of the past based on the works of art. Museums and art collections in Iran, since most of their work in the past has been obtained via archaeological excavations, did not suffer much from fake works. But todays, as the destructive aspect of history and culture of the country, they face a huge amount of forging of ancient works in the contemporary sense, which has a history of about 100-150 years. These works have been gathered from the thieves in museums, and the continuation of this trend will have concerns about the authenticity of works in the museums. Therefore, the exact identification and recognition of these art works by using scientific and laboratory studies, before entering into the museums, is very important. The cognitive study is considered as a noticeable sample of interdisciplinary kind of study, including some areas of studies such as typology, linguistics, chronometry, geometry, chemistry and physics, as the related sciences. Moreover, the design information on the works plays an important role in recognition of the politic, economic and social status of the ancient societies.
Because of the metal resistance of the coins, they will be less affected by the environmental degradation factors comparing to the other historic and ancient artifacts; and in many cases, they remain in almost good quality. This advantage sometimes causes bugs in authenticity of some collections which were not obtained from the scientific archaeological excavations. Thus, it was necessary to deal with this issue, due to the limited interdisciplinary studies in this field.
Reviewing the related literature has revealed that there has not been any substantive and codified research on the authentication of coins assigned to the Achaemenid period. In the present research, 10 silver coins of the Achaemenid period, which were kept at the Pars Shiraz Museum and were recorded from the cultural thieves in the city of Marvdasht of Fars, in 2009. In order to identify their authenticity, their elemental composition were studied by using PIXE technique, and the results obtained were compared to that of Achaemenid genuine coins of National Museum of Iran. The physical properties of coins, including motifs and their weight, have also been studied.
Results and Discussion
In order to determine the authenticity of the sample coins, the determination of the amount of elements by the PIXE chemical analysis method, and the study of existing designs and their weights, along with the comparison of the results obtained to that of the research on the Achaemenid genuine coins in the National Museum of Iran were used.
In measuring the concentration of the elements in the samples by PIXE technique, certain X-rays are directly irradiated onto the samples, where they interact with the sample atoms, which consequently, this technique does not require the sample preparation with certain materials, and the coins studied must just be cleaned. Therefore, for the comparison of the XRS results of the samples with that of the Achaemenid genuine coins, the concentrations of four main metallic elements, Pb, Ag, Au, and Cu were considered.
In the results of the elemental analysis, high and almost identical silver (98-99%) was observed in the studied coins. As a result, it can be said that the coins of interest are coins of the Achaemenid period, often coined in the same mint.
The pattern of dispersion of the minor elements in the sample can also represent the same source of ore used for their preparation and coinage, indicating the authenticity of the coins studied. So, the amount of the selected minor elements has also be measured by PIXE technique.
From the dispersion diagrams of the sub-elements in silver coins, the copper and lead dispersion graph is important to study. This diagram has showed that the dispersion of lead and copper in silver coins has a good overlap with the dispersion of these elements in the Achaemenid genuine coins, which may indicate the same ore used in the preparation and coinage of these coins.
Conclusions
In this study, the elemental analysis of the samples was realized by PIXE technique and the results obtained were compared to that of the Achaemenid genuine coins of the National Museum of Iran, which have been analyzed by Olyaee and her colleagues in 2015.
The dispersion pattern of silver and gold elements in both sets of coins showed a similar and almost identical pattern, which shows that both groups of coins are similar in terms of primary ore and coinage conditions. The statistical analysis of the results showed that metal elements such as silver, lead, gold, copper and the other trace elements in the sample of this study have similar grade changes to that of obtained from the analysis of 27 Achemenid genuine coins, where this could be a sign of authenticity of them; show probably the same provenance of ore used, mining technologies, and the similar multiplication method.
The archaeological studies of designs and weight of the samples, also confirms their similarity to that of the genuine Achaemenid Coins. The survey of literature revealed that the Achaemenid silver coins have the weight limited to 5.5±0.2 g, where the measurements of the coins showed that all the studied samples obey this limit of Akhaemenid coins weight.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2731_96045b357a3e0b8772251ec8368a73e6.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Rouha, Sassanian Building in the Seymareh CoastRouha, Sassanian Building in the Seymareh Coast129148273210.22084/nbsh.2019.15870.1721FALilyNiakanIranian Centre for Archaeological Research (ICAR)Journal Article20181110Throughout history, nature and ecosystem characteristics of the river Seymareh have had an irrefutable effect on the formation and development process of human settlements. Archeological studies in the Seymareh basin have been discovered over the past decade, and obtained valuable evidence for analytical researches in various areas of pottery, architecture and various handicrafts. As a result of one of the archaeological methodological studies in a domain so-called Tange Kaffari on the margin of the river Rouha, parts of the structural elements on the rocky bed of the Mela Ruteh Mountains were revealed on a terrace from the third era of geology and on a steep slope toward the river Rouha. Existing sets of evidences and evaluations based on a preliminary review of pottery documents, documentation of building works, and the observation and understanding of environmental obvious things lead to purposeful exploration. The preliminary results confirm the compliance of architectural structures with the systematic design, the precise paints and a well-known style of the Sasanian period, and the implications of the examination of pottery documents are in confirmation of this date. On the other hand, the geographic and strategic position of the area and the drilled and investigated area indicating a confrontation to one of the important communication routes between the ancient Mesopotamia and the Ilam, and the vital role of the Strait in the passage from the border of the Seymareh to Darehshahr and then to Lorestan. Hence, it is not far from the mind, deduction of communication motives, exchanges and social movements to establish these structures. Factors such as the complexity of the map, the diversity of space, the quality of materials, and the possible scope of construction, while, make it possible for local rule under the rule of Sassanid empire, and it is no doubt on necessity monitors on continuity of exploration.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Ilam, Seymareh, Tangeh Kafri, Rouha, Sassanid.
Introduction and Method
A part of this catchment area, Tangeh kafari is one of the most suitable areas for archaeological research, and identification of Species, stages, and human exploitation from an immutable natural setting, especially during ancient and historical periods. In the 2016, general surveys and local sampling in the area under discussion attracted the expedition’s attention to the relationship between pottery findings and the remains of concentrated architecture. Such evidence, along with structural constitutions and relationships initiated the historical cohesive studies and analytical archaeological research in the Seymareh Cultural Region, leading to reviews include:
- Explaining the position of this building in the perspective of the same period sites in the Seymareh Cultural Region.
- The nature of the building in terms of its architectural relevance in relation to other monuments of the same period in the region
- The quality of the building and its potential connection with other areas of the same time in the region were discussed
The research methodology is fundamental based on field study, centralized exploration, review of historical sources and an adaptive approach to data sets. In addition to theoretical analysis, it is based on laboratory findings on findings such as glass objects aerial imagery and detailed documentary drawings, single-dimensional and multi-dimensional imaging of our background documents for the description of the subject, content development and presentation of the results of this research.
Features of the Newly Built Architecture of Rouha
The architectural evidence of this monument represents regular remains of the walls and architectural structures of the recently has been found building. The materials used in this architecture were mostly stones, broken thick-shaped slabs of rivers, along with gypsum mortar. The facade of all the walls was covered with gypsum coating. In the parts of the building, there were still remnants of gypsum floor, which in some places almost completely and firmly aligned and tightened with wall foundation, as a ridge of small stones on the sedimentary bed of a thickness of 30 cm. During the mapping, the Sassanid building of Rouha was identified. This building has two independent sections, which are called buildings A and B, The A-Building Plan shows the building is composed of three central, eastern and western halls, alongside each other. The central hall is about 4 × 9 meters larger than the others. Other halls, such as the western Hall of 360 cm in size, and the eastern Hall of 270 cm in size is the smallest hall. Although there is no significant symmetry in the building plan, the location of the main piers of the central hall and the type of cover structure could be imagined it So that the pier in front of each other carry the groin and may have been arched between them.
According to the architectural knowledge of this period, can say that this style of architecture belongs to the middle period or the end of the period Sassanid; and the cover of the ceiling of the eastern and western halls, with the accumulation of arched pieces, could be covered with arches. Also, the two niche of the western wall differ with other niches, this section of the building is different, and the cover is semi-dome and symmetry.
Conclusion
Cultural outcomes due to the impact and appropriateness of the favorable situation and condition of the Seymareh basin in various parts of it have often appeared in the form of small and large human settlements during the previous millennia. Tange kafari is part of this basin area and one of the most suitable areas for archaeological research, and identifies pieces, stages, and human exploitation from an immutable natural setting, especially during ancient and historical periods. General studies and local sampling in the discussed area were identified on the relationship between the pottery findings and the remains of the centralized architectural monuments, which reminded the columnar hall plan, the use of the porch and portico, the attention to the arch roofs, embedding the niche, and the base of stone pillars in enclosed spaces. Such evidence alongside structural connections and the relationships, have led to the beginning of coherent historical studies and analytical archaeological research in the construction of Seymareh Cultural Region.
The Tangeh Kafri is a strait and crossroads linking Mesopotamia, Ilam and other ancient sites to the Seymare shores, it was the main corridor of cultures over thousands of years. Located adjacent to this strategic passage, the Sassanid Rouha building, which is an example of a monument in this cultural field. This method of Iranian architecture has been prevalent in the Sassanid era in Fars, such as Firoozabad, also are found in Zagros slopes around Ilam and Seymareh streams such as Bazzqavalleh, Galeh Gori. Le-Lar Darre Shahr, and Galeh and fire temples of Kolm or other remains of the Sassanid era, in this cultural area, Tang-e-Choobineh andTang-e Sheikh are located along the road of Darre Shahr toward the valley of the city Pol Dokhtar. On the other hand, and it reinforces the notion that the Seymareh Basin has had a thriving cultural life in the Sasanian period. Due to its close proximity to the Sassanid capital, such as Tiesfone, and the placement of the above mentioned area in the mountains of Zagros, there are proper defense facilities and a good climate, as well as the presence of Kolm fireplace at its immediate distance and taking into account the architectural structures left over from the period Sassanid in the Tange Kufri, it can be considered as a state building along with other magnificent monuments exploring this geographic area, and given the strategic location of the Tange Kufri, which tracks it from the margin of the Seymareh River toward Darre Shahr, and then,it was linked by Lorestan. Perhaps this building belongs to the local ruled with a small regional power under the banner of the Sassanian in the western cultural zone, which, in addition to controlling the road, was of great importance as a strategic passage or it was as a safe haven for local ruleds and Sasanian aristocracy. Continuing extensive exploration in this great city can answer to numerous questions in order to interpret and explain this magnificent and luxurious architectural structure in this cultural field.Throughout history, nature and ecosystem characteristics of the river Seymareh have had an irrefutable effect on the formation and development process of human settlements. Archeological studies in the Seymareh basin have been discovered over the past decade, and obtained valuable evidence for analytical researches in various areas of pottery, architecture and various handicrafts. As a result of one of the archaeological methodological studies in a domain so-called Tange Kaffari on the margin of the river Rouha, parts of the structural elements on the rocky bed of the Mela Ruteh Mountains were revealed on a terrace from the third era of geology and on a steep slope toward the river Rouha. Existing sets of evidences and evaluations based on a preliminary review of pottery documents, documentation of building works, and the observation and understanding of environmental obvious things lead to purposeful exploration. The preliminary results confirm the compliance of architectural structures with the systematic design, the precise paints and a well-known style of the Sasanian period, and the implications of the examination of pottery documents are in confirmation of this date. On the other hand, the geographic and strategic position of the area and the drilled and investigated area indicating a confrontation to one of the important communication routes between the ancient Mesopotamia and the Ilam, and the vital role of the Strait in the passage from the border of the Seymareh to Darehshahr and then to Lorestan. Hence, it is not far from the mind, deduction of communication motives, exchanges and social movements to establish these structures. Factors such as the complexity of the map, the diversity of space, the quality of materials, and the possible scope of construction, while, make it possible for local rule under the rule of Sassanid empire, and it is no doubt on necessity monitors on continuity of exploration.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Ilam, Seymareh, Tangeh Kafri, Rouha, Sassanid.
Introduction and Method
A part of this catchment area, Tangeh kafari is one of the most suitable areas for archaeological research, and identification of Species, stages, and human exploitation from an immutable natural setting, especially during ancient and historical periods. In the 2016, general surveys and local sampling in the area under discussion attracted the expedition’s attention to the relationship between pottery findings and the remains of concentrated architecture. Such evidence, along with structural constitutions and relationships initiated the historical cohesive studies and analytical archaeological research in the Seymareh Cultural Region, leading to reviews include:
- Explaining the position of this building in the perspective of the same period sites in the Seymareh Cultural Region.
- The nature of the building in terms of its architectural relevance in relation to other monuments of the same period in the region
- The quality of the building and its potential connection with other areas of the same time in the region were discussed
The research methodology is fundamental based on field study, centralized exploration, review of historical sources and an adaptive approach to data sets. In addition to theoretical analysis, it is based on laboratory findings on findings such as glass objects aerial imagery and detailed documentary drawings, single-dimensional and multi-dimensional imaging of our background documents for the description of the subject, content development and presentation of the results of this research.
Features of the Newly Built Architecture of Rouha
The architectural evidence of this monument represents regular remains of the walls and architectural structures of the recently has been found building. The materials used in this architecture were mostly stones, broken thick-shaped slabs of rivers, along with gypsum mortar. The facade of all the walls was covered with gypsum coating. In the parts of the building, there were still remnants of gypsum floor, which in some places almost completely and firmly aligned and tightened with wall foundation, as a ridge of small stones on the sedimentary bed of a thickness of 30 cm. During the mapping, the Sassanid building of Rouha was identified. This building has two independent sections, which are called buildings A and B, The A-Building Plan shows the building is composed of three central, eastern and western halls, alongside each other. The central hall is about 4 × 9 meters larger than the others. Other halls, such as the western Hall of 360 cm in size, and the eastern Hall of 270 cm in size is the smallest hall. Although there is no significant symmetry in the building plan, the location of the main piers of the central hall and the type of cover structure could be imagined it So that the pier in front of each other carry the groin and may have been arched between them.
According to the architectural knowledge of this period, can say that this style of architecture belongs to the middle period or the end of the period Sassanid; and the cover of the ceiling of the eastern and western halls, with the accumulation of arched pieces, could be covered with arches. Also, the two niche of the western wall differ with other niches, this section of the building is different, and the cover is semi-dome and symmetry.
Conclusion
Cultural outcomes due to the impact and appropriateness of the favorable situation and condition of the Seymareh basin in various parts of it have often appeared in the form of small and large human settlements during the previous millennia. Tange kafari is part of this basin area and one of the most suitable areas for archaeological research, and identifies pieces, stages, and human exploitation from an immutable natural setting, especially during ancient and historical periods. General studies and local sampling in the discussed area were identified on the relationship between the pottery findings and the remains of the centralized architectural monuments, which reminded the columnar hall plan, the use of the porch and portico, the attention to the arch roofs, embedding the niche, and the base of stone pillars in enclosed spaces. Such evidence alongside structural connections and the relationships, have led to the beginning of coherent historical studies and analytical archaeological research in the construction of Seymareh Cultural Region.
The Tangeh Kafri is a strait and crossroads linking Mesopotamia, Ilam and other ancient sites to the Seymare shores, it was the main corridor of cultures over thousands of years. Located adjacent to this strategic passage, the Sassanid Rouha building, which is an example of a monument in this cultural field. This method of Iranian architecture has been prevalent in the Sassanid era in Fars, such as Firoozabad, also are found in Zagros slopes around Ilam and Seymareh streams such as Bazzqavalleh, Galeh Gori. Le-Lar Darre Shahr, and Galeh and fire temples of Kolm or other remains of the Sassanid era, in this cultural area, Tang-e-Choobineh andTang-e Sheikh are located along the road of Darre Shahr toward the valley of the city Pol Dokhtar. On the other hand, and it reinforces the notion that the Seymareh Basin has had a thriving cultural life in the Sasanian period. Due to its close proximity to the Sassanid capital, such as Tiesfone, and the placement of the above mentioned area in the mountains of Zagros, there are proper defense facilities and a good climate, as well as the presence of Kolm fireplace at its immediate distance and taking into account the architectural structures left over from the period Sassanid in the Tange Kufri, it can be considered as a state building along with other magnificent monuments exploring this geographic area, and given the strategic location of the Tange Kufri, which tracks it from the margin of the Seymareh River toward Darre Shahr, and then,it was linked by Lorestan. Perhaps this building belongs to the local ruled with a small regional power under the banner of the Sassanian in the western cultural zone, which, in addition to controlling the road, was of great importance as a strategic passage or it was as a safe haven for local ruleds and Sasanian aristocracy. Continuing extensive exploration in this great city can answer to numerous questions in order to interpret and explain this magnificent and luxurious architectural structure in this cultural field.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2732_bd7c2db46fc3d73461c7470b60599c95.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Study of the Symbols of Confession, Baptism, and the Lord’s Supper Nestorius Church, on the Basis of the Selected Sogdian-Christian Texts Discovered in Archaeological Site of Turfan, ChinaStudy of the Symbols of Confession, Baptism, and the Lord’s Supper Nestorius Church, on the Basis of the Selected Sogdian-Christian Texts Discovered in Archaeological Site of Turfan, China149164273310.22084/nbsh.2017.13315.1581FAAzarSarmadijouPh.D. Student of Culture and Ancient Languages, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Campus, Tehran BranchZohrehZarshenasMaster of Culture and Ancient Languages Department, Azad University, Science and Research Campus, Tehran BranchJournal Article20170318Sogdian language has been the language of people of Sogdian land.The Sogd center Samarkand and the most important their city of Bukhara has been in the present Republic of Uzbekistan.The Sogdian language as one of the Iranian languages in Central Asia has been widely used in expressing and reflecting the religious orders of some Pre-Islamic religions.In addition,the Sogdian language has been the as administrative, commercial and cultural language in other areas, such as Turfan oases in the Turkestan. In 1904-1907 a mission from Germany discovered a collection of Sogdian texts in the ruins of Church Nestorian Christians Bulayiq in located in oasis China’s Turfan, these texts include symbols of confession, baptism and lord’s supper in Christianity in the East. The main question in this research is how the Sogdian language played a role in the development and spread of Christianity in the Silk Road and how are the symbols of Western Christianity preserved in Eastern Christianity and finally, Eastern Christianity has innovated in the foundation and teachings of Christianity? The hypothesis of this paper is that the symbols in Eastern Christianity are almost identical with the symbols of Christianity in Rome, and the Nestorian Church’s view of the existential nature of Jesus does not match the Roman Catholic Church. This research has been conducted with a historical –analytical method based on sources, texte and library documentations and the outcome of the research indicates that the confession was held at the beginning of the group, but in the next few years, confessions were carried out privately and in secret. The symbol of baptism has changed in both Eastern and Western Christianity and lord’supper is held in all sects of Christianity in the tradition of the Bible.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Sogdian Language, Christianity, Confession Symbols, Silk Road, Turfan.
Introduction & Method
Sogdian merchants, most of Christian, Manichean and Buddhist, transmitted goods, Culture and art among the tribes of Central Asia and China. Presence along the Silk Road that has been a cultural, commercial and religious road has exposed them to new followers and perhaps with a little laxity and the use of the cultural influence of Sogdian language, they have been able to invited many followers to Christianity. Sogdians have long influenced other cultures. They were familiar with the writing of the Achaemenid period, which was a composure line ahead of the Sogdian line common to the Imperial Kingdom, therefore, they had great cultural influence, on their sovereigns, as a result of this cultural influence, the Sogdian line has been used to write the ancient Turkish language, the uighar line.
The name of Sogd has come to the references of Chinese “Sotah”, it maybe that the name of the mountain originated in ancient Chinese texts for the designation of the Kosh region and the old pronunciation of that is Suogit and originally derived from the same name Sogd.In the Gobe Desert in Central Asia,Several cities were hit by a storm and the people of those cities abandoned their land and left, and their homes fell under the sand, from the late nineteenth century some travelers noticed that pieces of paper sometimes came out of the sand and the natives use some of them instead of glass, door and windows,and there are lines on it.
The geographic association of St.Petersburg from 1893 to 1895 there excavated science, the result was the excavation of a cave appearance in Dong Huang,Chaina among which the documents were obtained.These texts were about confession and baptism.By transmitting these documents to the museums of Berlin, Paris, London, St.Petersburg, European and American scientists studied these ancient manuscripts. One of these important manuscripts in this paper is that in two pages of paper probably Chinese is Sogdian language. These two pages the document are important in this regard, referring to topics that have not been taken up so far by them. Therefore, the present paper, while fully studying these two pages, has been translated and analyzed. The research method in this article is an analytical-historical method based on library resources. So after selecting a several Sogdian Christian texts from texts discovered in Turfan, the texts have been translated into Persian.
Conclusion
The study of Sogdian texts shows that the teachings of the Eastern Orthodox Church, such as Central Asia and Sogd, along the Silk Road have been identical with the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church on the Symbols such as confession the demands of forgiveness and baptism. Today, these Symbols are held at the ceremony with a slight difference in Eastern and Western Christianity. The confession at the beginning of the genesis was held in a collective manner, but in the following times it was carried out personally and in secret, thus the dignity of people was preserved. The confession tradition, in turn, reduced the general crimes of the Christian community. The baptism Symbol has also been transformed in both Eastern and Western Christianity. Another Symbol that had changed in the Nestorian Church was austerity. The Roman Catholic Church condemned and rejected it’s as a deviation in religion. The priests of the Nestorian Church, unlike the Catholic Church, believed in Jesus for the earthly body, and abandoned themselves from the austerity that the catholic priests paved themselves, thus the Christian bishops of Nestorian obtained the right to marry.
In this way, Sogdian speaking Christians, despite the persecution and prosecution of governments and followers of other religions, always pioneered the promotion of Christianity and discovery of the Sogdian manuscripts of the Nestorian Church in Turfan of China illustrates the great sacrifices and cultural service of this people.Sogdian language has been the language of people of Sogdian land.The Sogd center Samarkand and the most important their city of Bukhara has been in the present Republic of Uzbekistan.The Sogdian language as one of the Iranian languages in Central Asia has been widely used in expressing and reflecting the religious orders of some Pre-Islamic religions.In addition,the Sogdian language has been the as administrative, commercial and cultural language in other areas, such as Turfan oases in the Turkestan. In 1904-1907 a mission from Germany discovered a collection of Sogdian texts in the ruins of Church Nestorian Christians Bulayiq in located in oasis China’s Turfan, these texts include symbols of confession, baptism and lord’s supper in Christianity in the East. The main question in this research is how the Sogdian language played a role in the development and spread of Christianity in the Silk Road and how are the symbols of Western Christianity preserved in Eastern Christianity and finally, Eastern Christianity has innovated in the foundation and teachings of Christianity? The hypothesis of this paper is that the symbols in Eastern Christianity are almost identical with the symbols of Christianity in Rome, and the Nestorian Church’s view of the existential nature of Jesus does not match the Roman Catholic Church. This research has been conducted with a historical –analytical method based on sources, texte and library documentations and the outcome of the research indicates that the confession was held at the beginning of the group, but in the next few years, confessions were carried out privately and in secret. The symbol of baptism has changed in both Eastern and Western Christianity and lord’supper is held in all sects of Christianity in the tradition of the Bible.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Sogdian Language, Christianity, Confession Symbols, Silk Road, Turfan.
Introduction & Method
Sogdian merchants, most of Christian, Manichean and Buddhist, transmitted goods, Culture and art among the tribes of Central Asia and China. Presence along the Silk Road that has been a cultural, commercial and religious road has exposed them to new followers and perhaps with a little laxity and the use of the cultural influence of Sogdian language, they have been able to invited many followers to Christianity. Sogdians have long influenced other cultures. They were familiar with the writing of the Achaemenid period, which was a composure line ahead of the Sogdian line common to the Imperial Kingdom, therefore, they had great cultural influence, on their sovereigns, as a result of this cultural influence, the Sogdian line has been used to write the ancient Turkish language, the uighar line.
The name of Sogd has come to the references of Chinese “Sotah”, it maybe that the name of the mountain originated in ancient Chinese texts for the designation of the Kosh region and the old pronunciation of that is Suogit and originally derived from the same name Sogd.In the Gobe Desert in Central Asia,Several cities were hit by a storm and the people of those cities abandoned their land and left, and their homes fell under the sand, from the late nineteenth century some travelers noticed that pieces of paper sometimes came out of the sand and the natives use some of them instead of glass, door and windows,and there are lines on it.
The geographic association of St.Petersburg from 1893 to 1895 there excavated science, the result was the excavation of a cave appearance in Dong Huang,Chaina among which the documents were obtained.These texts were about confession and baptism.By transmitting these documents to the museums of Berlin, Paris, London, St.Petersburg, European and American scientists studied these ancient manuscripts. One of these important manuscripts in this paper is that in two pages of paper probably Chinese is Sogdian language. These two pages the document are important in this regard, referring to topics that have not been taken up so far by them. Therefore, the present paper, while fully studying these two pages, has been translated and analyzed. The research method in this article is an analytical-historical method based on library resources. So after selecting a several Sogdian Christian texts from texts discovered in Turfan, the texts have been translated into Persian.
Conclusion
The study of Sogdian texts shows that the teachings of the Eastern Orthodox Church, such as Central Asia and Sogd, along the Silk Road have been identical with the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church on the Symbols such as confession the demands of forgiveness and baptism. Today, these Symbols are held at the ceremony with a slight difference in Eastern and Western Christianity. The confession at the beginning of the genesis was held in a collective manner, but in the following times it was carried out personally and in secret, thus the dignity of people was preserved. The confession tradition, in turn, reduced the general crimes of the Christian community. The baptism Symbol has also been transformed in both Eastern and Western Christianity. Another Symbol that had changed in the Nestorian Church was austerity. The Roman Catholic Church condemned and rejected it’s as a deviation in religion. The priests of the Nestorian Church, unlike the Catholic Church, believed in Jesus for the earthly body, and abandoned themselves from the austerity that the catholic priests paved themselves, thus the Christian bishops of Nestorian obtained the right to marry.
In this way, Sogdian speaking Christians, despite the persecution and prosecution of governments and followers of other religions, always pioneered the promotion of Christianity and discovery of the Sogdian manuscripts of the Nestorian Church in Turfan of China illustrates the great sacrifices and cultural service of this people.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2733_66122590be85052038fd23768846b3c4.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Sense of Place in the Mosques Based on a Comparative Study of the Shape and Place of Making Fakhr-O-Madin in Historical MosquesSense of Place in the Mosques Based on a Comparative Study of the Shape and Place of Making Fakhr-O-Madin in Historical Mosques165182273410.22084/nbsh.2019.16867.1782FAAhadNEJAD EBRAHIMIAssociate Professor, Architecture and Urbanism of Islamic Art University of TabrizMahyaTooranpoorM.A. Student of Islamic Architectural Engineering, Islamic Art University of TabrizJournal Article20180807Fakhr-Ö-Madin were elements of native architecture of Iran that have a special place in different types of Iranian architecture. This element as a technique in material arrangement has been used in architecture since the past to date; Architects used this technique to create shadow and bright for visual beauty, and to absorb the looking at the facade. In the initial view, the Fakhr-Ö-Madin is merely a decorative element, but the main issue of the present research is that the Fakhr-Ö-Madin beside the decorations has created ways to create a sense of place in Iranian-Islamic monuments? To answer this question, it is needed to know the changes of this element through the time and place; to clarify the subject, the mosque was chosen as the case study. The main reasons for this choice is that mosques have constructed in different periods form the early Islam era up to now, and the Fakhr-Ö-Madin has been used lesser in other types of architecture. The present study is an application Comparative research and the required information has been collected from library references and field surveys. The results show that the Fakhr o Madin as an architectural element is essentially an application element. The main characteristics of the Fakhr-Ö-Madin which encouraged the architects to use it are security, privacy, thermal comfort and ventilation, beauty, visual interaction and lighting. In different historical periods, along with the political and belief changes the Fakhr-Ö-Madin has changed too. However, this element has been effective in various historical intervals in creating a sense of place, sensory and emotional experiences and mental images in individuals.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Fakhr-O-Madin, Mosques of Architecture, Sense of Place in the Mosques, Iranian-Islamic of Architecture.
Introduction
One of the architectural aspects that have been important in recent years is the location, location creation, and sense of place in the architectural space; Understanding these aspects can pave the way for upgrading and enforcing the continuity of native and historical architectural elements in contemporary architecture. This research seeks to answer the question of why the element is used by architects according to the concepts and causes of the formation of a sense of place, considering the function, the shape and place of its construction in historical mosques .It also seeks to answer these questions: What were the different aspects of Fakhr-Ö-Madin function in the architecture of Iranian mosques? And the second question: what role did the element have in the creation of a sense of place? For the hypothesis of the first question, it can be said: Considering the rich history and beliefs of the Iranian people, this architectural element has rational reasons for its use in buildings and it is involved in creating an experience of more spiritual, emotional and spatial perception. In fact, by creating visual interaction, this wall plays a significant role. Second question hypothesis: It seemed that the various aspects of the function and beauty of this element could be effective to creating a sense of place. In this study, considering the importance of the mosque from ancient times and the use of Fakhr-Ö-Madin in the architecture of the mosques, selected case examples are of important mosques and indicators of each historical period. After the selection, the study of the samples and the study of the characteristics and causes of the formation of each of the mosques’ favors and mosques were made comparatively. This stage consisted of three stages of description, interpretation and comparative comparisons based on obtained characteristics; due to the lack of authentic documents on the originality of this element in selected mosques, the study was based on the form and method of arrangement and location, and due to the repairs done in In recent years, in the absence of the date and time of repairs, the shape and superiority of the elements of this element in relation to each other in the mosques were examined, and the approaches to making Fakhr-Ö-Madin and the factors creating a sense of place using the Panther’s model, the characteristics of sense of place are classified into three parts: physical, operational, and semantic.
Researchs
In the corporal part of the structure, the wall was examined from the geometry and visual beauty materials. In the mosques of Na’in, Ardestan and Yazd mosque, the materials used were pottery, which in other cases changed to brick and in Sheikh Lotfollah mosque, tile was used to construct this wall. The geometry of this wall is the same and consists of regular shapes and geometric shapes. In the case of visual aesthetics, the specimens also have the same characteristics. In the activity component, three indicators of environmental comfort, security and protection and visual interaction were investigated. The first feature that includes air passage, ventilation and light port is the same in all mosque samples and only in the mosque of Jundi Shapur University this mark which was in the construction of Fakhr-Ö-Madin have not been noticed. In examining the creation of security and protection in the two mosques of Na’in and Yazd, they used of the feature of Fakhr-Ö-Madin mosque which is located in the porch of the Jame mosque in Na’in and in the upper parts of the head of the Jame Mosque’s facade in Yazd. In the remaining cases, this index has not been considered. In the section on creating visual interaction of Ardestan, Varamin, Yazd, Sheikh Lotfollah and Aqa Bozorg Mosque, they used of this Fakhr-Ö-Madin’s feature. In the semantic section, in confidentiality debate, only it been dealt with only in the Agha Bozorg mosque and it has been used to create the necessary privacy and confidentiality in the chambers of the religious scholars. In the study of the second feature, all the mosques surveyed had this attribute and were merely insignificant just in the mosque of Jundishapur University.
Conclusion
Considering the study of the existing features to create a sense of place in the element of Fakhr-Ö-Madin in mosques of various historical periods, the changes in this element indicate the evolution of this phenomenon. According to the studies, the Yazd Mosque and the Agha Bozorg mosque are the most successful examples in creating a sense of place using the Fakhr-Ö-Madin element; and then the Naiin Mosque of Ardestan Varamin and Sheikh Lotfollah are in the next ranks respectively.Al-Ghadir Mosque in the contemporary era is one of the examples that will be devoted to restoring and reviving the meaning of Fakhr-Ö-Madin is in the next rank; also the mosque of Jundishapur University belonging to the Pahlavi era, which is noticed merely in the beauty of Fakhr-Ö-Madin is in the last. Case examples are in the best performance and application of Fakhr-Ö-Madin to the most superficial one. According to the conducted investigations and the findings, in addition to the beauty of the building and the decorative function, Fakhr-Ö-Madin can beconsidered as an element influencing the creation of a sense of place, stimulating the emotions and feelings of individuals; which Its related characteristics are clearly more obvious over time and developments.Fakhr-Ö-Madin were elements of native architecture of Iran that have a special place in different types of Iranian architecture. This element as a technique in material arrangement has been used in architecture since the past to date; Architects used this technique to create shadow and bright for visual beauty, and to absorb the looking at the facade. In the initial view, the Fakhr-Ö-Madin is merely a decorative element, but the main issue of the present research is that the Fakhr-Ö-Madin beside the decorations has created ways to create a sense of place in Iranian-Islamic monuments? To answer this question, it is needed to know the changes of this element through the time and place; to clarify the subject, the mosque was chosen as the case study. The main reasons for this choice is that mosques have constructed in different periods form the early Islam era up to now, and the Fakhr-Ö-Madin has been used lesser in other types of architecture. The present study is an application Comparative research and the required information has been collected from library references and field surveys. The results show that the Fakhr o Madin as an architectural element is essentially an application element. The main characteristics of the Fakhr-Ö-Madin which encouraged the architects to use it are security, privacy, thermal comfort and ventilation, beauty, visual interaction and lighting. In different historical periods, along with the political and belief changes the Fakhr-Ö-Madin has changed too. However, this element has been effective in various historical intervals in creating a sense of place, sensory and emotional experiences and mental images in individuals.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Fakhr-O-Madin, Mosques of Architecture, Sense of Place in the Mosques, Iranian-Islamic of Architecture.
Introduction
One of the architectural aspects that have been important in recent years is the location, location creation, and sense of place in the architectural space; Understanding these aspects can pave the way for upgrading and enforcing the continuity of native and historical architectural elements in contemporary architecture. This research seeks to answer the question of why the element is used by architects according to the concepts and causes of the formation of a sense of place, considering the function, the shape and place of its construction in historical mosques .It also seeks to answer these questions: What were the different aspects of Fakhr-Ö-Madin function in the architecture of Iranian mosques? And the second question: what role did the element have in the creation of a sense of place? For the hypothesis of the first question, it can be said: Considering the rich history and beliefs of the Iranian people, this architectural element has rational reasons for its use in buildings and it is involved in creating an experience of more spiritual, emotional and spatial perception. In fact, by creating visual interaction, this wall plays a significant role. Second question hypothesis: It seemed that the various aspects of the function and beauty of this element could be effective to creating a sense of place. In this study, considering the importance of the mosque from ancient times and the use of Fakhr-Ö-Madin in the architecture of the mosques, selected case examples are of important mosques and indicators of each historical period. After the selection, the study of the samples and the study of the characteristics and causes of the formation of each of the mosques’ favors and mosques were made comparatively. This stage consisted of three stages of description, interpretation and comparative comparisons based on obtained characteristics; due to the lack of authentic documents on the originality of this element in selected mosques, the study was based on the form and method of arrangement and location, and due to the repairs done in In recent years, in the absence of the date and time of repairs, the shape and superiority of the elements of this element in relation to each other in the mosques were examined, and the approaches to making Fakhr-Ö-Madin and the factors creating a sense of place using the Panther’s model, the characteristics of sense of place are classified into three parts: physical, operational, and semantic.
Researchs
In the corporal part of the structure, the wall was examined from the geometry and visual beauty materials. In the mosques of Na’in, Ardestan and Yazd mosque, the materials used were pottery, which in other cases changed to brick and in Sheikh Lotfollah mosque, tile was used to construct this wall. The geometry of this wall is the same and consists of regular shapes and geometric shapes. In the case of visual aesthetics, the specimens also have the same characteristics. In the activity component, three indicators of environmental comfort, security and protection and visual interaction were investigated. The first feature that includes air passage, ventilation and light port is the same in all mosque samples and only in the mosque of Jundi Shapur University this mark which was in the construction of Fakhr-Ö-Madin have not been noticed. In examining the creation of security and protection in the two mosques of Na’in and Yazd, they used of the feature of Fakhr-Ö-Madin mosque which is located in the porch of the Jame mosque in Na’in and in the upper parts of the head of the Jame Mosque’s facade in Yazd. In the remaining cases, this index has not been considered. In the section on creating visual interaction of Ardestan, Varamin, Yazd, Sheikh Lotfollah and Aqa Bozorg Mosque, they used of this Fakhr-Ö-Madin’s feature. In the semantic section, in confidentiality debate, only it been dealt with only in the Agha Bozorg mosque and it has been used to create the necessary privacy and confidentiality in the chambers of the religious scholars. In the study of the second feature, all the mosques surveyed had this attribute and were merely insignificant just in the mosque of Jundishapur University.
Conclusion
Considering the study of the existing features to create a sense of place in the element of Fakhr-Ö-Madin in mosques of various historical periods, the changes in this element indicate the evolution of this phenomenon. According to the studies, the Yazd Mosque and the Agha Bozorg mosque are the most successful examples in creating a sense of place using the Fakhr-Ö-Madin element; and then the Naiin Mosque of Ardestan Varamin and Sheikh Lotfollah are in the next ranks respectively.Al-Ghadir Mosque in the contemporary era is one of the examples that will be devoted to restoring and reviving the meaning of Fakhr-Ö-Madin is in the next rank; also the mosque of Jundishapur University belonging to the Pahlavi era, which is noticed merely in the beauty of Fakhr-Ö-Madin is in the last. Case examples are in the best performance and application of Fakhr-Ö-Madin to the most superficial one. According to the conducted investigations and the findings, in addition to the beauty of the building and the decorative function, Fakhr-Ö-Madin can beconsidered as an element influencing the creation of a sense of place, stimulating the emotions and feelings of individuals; which Its related characteristics are clearly more obvious over time and developments.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2734_aedb151fba94bc24753ccb621ea03a56.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Assessment and Analysis of Thermal Comfort Courtyards of Shiraz Historical Houses in Qajar EraAssessment and Analysis of Thermal Comfort Courtyards of Shiraz Historical Houses in Qajar Era183202273510.22084/nbsh.2019.17023.1792FASinaKaramiradMaster of Architecture, Shiraz UneversityBahareBanazadePh.D. Student, Tehran University, Kish International ComplexHaniZareiLecturer, Dep, Conservation of Historical Architecture, Jundi-Shapur University of Technology, DezfulEbrahimGhezelbashResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage & Tourism, ShirazJournal Article20180806The process of climate change in a long term can reduce the presence of men in the outdoors so that they resort to the indoors particularly in the hot and dry climates. The problem may decrease the rate of health among individuals as the effect of high temperature and increase the amount of consuming energy in the building due to the long-term use of indoor space. According to the need of proposing climate strategies to improve the outdoor climate quality and comparing with the native architecture, this research intends to assess the adaptation level of central courtyard of tradition houses in Qajar era with the climate condition in Shiraz, Iran. In other words, how can physical and environmental features such as outdoor percentage, direction, sky view factor, vegetation, water and certain materials affect the thermal comfort and extent of using space by men? seven Qajar houses in Shiraz were selected with the aim of prioritizing the effectiveness of above components, Using ENVI-met V.4 Basic for 3D simulation and assessment of microscale urban conditions, the assessment of thermal comfort level determined based on PMV index. The results demonstrate that more shading is seen for the courtyards with the least sky view factor and area so that it results in a better outdoor thermal comfort for the dwellers. Meanwhile, the direction of optimum rotation is about 27° SW. factors such as shading of trees and humidity effect of water pools cannot be forgotten in softening the microclimate air in the central courtyards. According to the coefficients of analyses, there is significant correlation between mean radiant temperature and PMV thermal comfort index in hot and dry climate in Shiraz.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Houses of Shiraz, Qajar Era, Outdoor Thermal Comfort, Central Courtyard, ENVI-met.
Introduction
The elements such as central courtyard by utilizing appropriate shading, specific vegetation, and a pool influence the thermal and visual comfort of dwellers on one hand and providing a convenient climate conditions on the other. These open spaces (outdoors) provide a suitable situation in bringing human interactions among family members, entertainment and physical activities. Thus the main function can be known as the creation of adaptation with the climate conditions in the region that is less seen in today courtyards. The level of thermal comfort in the central courtyard is intensively under the influence of amount of receiving radiance that the studies have paid less attention. Thus, the present research resolves the shortcomings and focus on the gray points with the aim of maintaining and restoring historical textures and of finding appropriate pattern for new construction in line with the microclimate conditions in Shiraz traditional houses in Qajar era. The work also analyzes accurately the thermal comfort in central courtyard by measuring the effect of components such as dimensions and proportions, pool, tree, and green space. Covering two fundamental topics, the research answers the following questions:
- What is the effect of climate on the construction of courtyards in Qajar era?
- What is the role of geometric form and available elements in courtyards in the level of thermal comfort in Qajar houses in Shiraz?
- What is the optimum direction of courtyard rotation for supplying the thermal comfort?
The main hypothesis is that the traditional houses in historical texture of cities of Iran and specifically Shiraz possesses such potentials to supply thermal comfort so that studying and analyzing them flourish design strategies. In so doing, seven Qajar houses (Zinat Al-Molk, Nasir Al-Molk, Amoyi, Afsharian, Atroush, Ardakani and Sons) in historical district were selected. This paper generally presents in two parts the theoretical principles and data analysis by means of ENVI-met Software. The simulation process is as follows:
- Modeling and determining situation of each house in terms of direction, dimensional proportions of courtyard, sky view factor, vegetation and aquatic levels;
- Determining climatic conditions and extracting meteorological data of Shiraz;
- Determining spatial point in the middle of central courtyard;
- Determining temporal range for analysis in 1st day of summer in 9 A.M. and 17 P.M.; and
- Extracting qualitative data and converting results to graphic diagrams on Leonardo1 Software
Findings
After executing the modeling, the outputs of climate model were calculated on ENVI-met for 2 time ranges of 9 A.M. and 17 P.M. on 22nd June (1st day of Summer). Amuyi House has the lowest rotation angle towards north; Afsharian House has the highest rotation angle; courtyard of Zinat Al-Molk House has the largest area (550 m2), and Amuyi House has the smallest area (61 m2). Accordingly, the sky view factor ranges from 0.19 in the walled courtyard to 0.56 in the widest courtyard. Proportion of height to width is another important parameter on radiance time Amuyi House has the largest proportion (H/W: 0.75) while Zinat Al-Molk House has the lowest proportion (H/W: 0.2). On the other hand, the data analysis shows that we observe a minimum 20° rotations in Amuyi House and 31° in Nasir Al-Molk House in southwest. About 27° rotations is seen among the houses selected. The extent of thermal comfort varies between 1.5 and 4.9 at 9 A.M. and 17 P.M. The best conditions for thermal comfort is for Amuyi House at 9 A.M. (PMV: 1.45) and the worst conditions is for Zinat Al-Molk House at 17 A.M. (PMV: 4.81). Other houses do not vary in terms of thermal comfort in both times because of close geometric situations of courtyards and same radiance time on their intended point.
In addition, increasing sky view factor in open spaces will increase the direct sun radiance and consequently increase the mean radiance temperature. There is also a significant relationship between “mean radiant temperature” and “PMV thermal comfort index” so that increasing mean radiant temperature increases the thermal stress of individuals and reduces the thermal comfort.
Conclusion
The geometric situation of courtyards brings about difference in time and angle of direct sun radiance to the courtyard. The radiance difference leads in different thermal comfort to the dwellers. On the other hand, paying attention to the effect of direction in residential areas to prevent radiance is one of the main factors. It is worth noting that appropriate direction is southwest in Shiraz. According to the results, about 27° rotations towards north is optimal in such a way that the direction does not clear appropriate effectiveness unless it is mixed with the factors such as proportions, vegetation and so forth. Therefore, ratio of height to width, angle of widespread areas of courtyards and using adaptation measures (watering, relocation in seasons, planting various deciduous plants, etc.) should be taken into consideration in designing the open spaces next to residential buildings. Finally, it should be noted while building houses with central courtyard may not make sense in today urbanization situation; the resultant strategies can be luminous.The process of climate change in a long term can reduce the presence of men in the outdoors so that they resort to the indoors particularly in the hot and dry climates. The problem may decrease the rate of health among individuals as the effect of high temperature and increase the amount of consuming energy in the building due to the long-term use of indoor space. According to the need of proposing climate strategies to improve the outdoor climate quality and comparing with the native architecture, this research intends to assess the adaptation level of central courtyard of tradition houses in Qajar era with the climate condition in Shiraz, Iran. In other words, how can physical and environmental features such as outdoor percentage, direction, sky view factor, vegetation, water and certain materials affect the thermal comfort and extent of using space by men? seven Qajar houses in Shiraz were selected with the aim of prioritizing the effectiveness of above components, Using ENVI-met V.4 Basic for 3D simulation and assessment of microscale urban conditions, the assessment of thermal comfort level determined based on PMV index. The results demonstrate that more shading is seen for the courtyards with the least sky view factor and area so that it results in a better outdoor thermal comfort for the dwellers. Meanwhile, the direction of optimum rotation is about 27° SW. factors such as shading of trees and humidity effect of water pools cannot be forgotten in softening the microclimate air in the central courtyards. According to the coefficients of analyses, there is significant correlation between mean radiant temperature and PMV thermal comfort index in hot and dry climate in Shiraz.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Houses of Shiraz, Qajar Era, Outdoor Thermal Comfort, Central Courtyard, ENVI-met.
Introduction
The elements such as central courtyard by utilizing appropriate shading, specific vegetation, and a pool influence the thermal and visual comfort of dwellers on one hand and providing a convenient climate conditions on the other. These open spaces (outdoors) provide a suitable situation in bringing human interactions among family members, entertainment and physical activities. Thus the main function can be known as the creation of adaptation with the climate conditions in the region that is less seen in today courtyards. The level of thermal comfort in the central courtyard is intensively under the influence of amount of receiving radiance that the studies have paid less attention. Thus, the present research resolves the shortcomings and focus on the gray points with the aim of maintaining and restoring historical textures and of finding appropriate pattern for new construction in line with the microclimate conditions in Shiraz traditional houses in Qajar era. The work also analyzes accurately the thermal comfort in central courtyard by measuring the effect of components such as dimensions and proportions, pool, tree, and green space. Covering two fundamental topics, the research answers the following questions:
- What is the effect of climate on the construction of courtyards in Qajar era?
- What is the role of geometric form and available elements in courtyards in the level of thermal comfort in Qajar houses in Shiraz?
- What is the optimum direction of courtyard rotation for supplying the thermal comfort?
The main hypothesis is that the traditional houses in historical texture of cities of Iran and specifically Shiraz possesses such potentials to supply thermal comfort so that studying and analyzing them flourish design strategies. In so doing, seven Qajar houses (Zinat Al-Molk, Nasir Al-Molk, Amoyi, Afsharian, Atroush, Ardakani and Sons) in historical district were selected. This paper generally presents in two parts the theoretical principles and data analysis by means of ENVI-met Software. The simulation process is as follows:
- Modeling and determining situation of each house in terms of direction, dimensional proportions of courtyard, sky view factor, vegetation and aquatic levels;
- Determining climatic conditions and extracting meteorological data of Shiraz;
- Determining spatial point in the middle of central courtyard;
- Determining temporal range for analysis in 1st day of summer in 9 A.M. and 17 P.M.; and
- Extracting qualitative data and converting results to graphic diagrams on Leonardo1 Software
Findings
After executing the modeling, the outputs of climate model were calculated on ENVI-met for 2 time ranges of 9 A.M. and 17 P.M. on 22nd June (1st day of Summer). Amuyi House has the lowest rotation angle towards north; Afsharian House has the highest rotation angle; courtyard of Zinat Al-Molk House has the largest area (550 m2), and Amuyi House has the smallest area (61 m2). Accordingly, the sky view factor ranges from 0.19 in the walled courtyard to 0.56 in the widest courtyard. Proportion of height to width is another important parameter on radiance time Amuyi House has the largest proportion (H/W: 0.75) while Zinat Al-Molk House has the lowest proportion (H/W: 0.2). On the other hand, the data analysis shows that we observe a minimum 20° rotations in Amuyi House and 31° in Nasir Al-Molk House in southwest. About 27° rotations is seen among the houses selected. The extent of thermal comfort varies between 1.5 and 4.9 at 9 A.M. and 17 P.M. The best conditions for thermal comfort is for Amuyi House at 9 A.M. (PMV: 1.45) and the worst conditions is for Zinat Al-Molk House at 17 A.M. (PMV: 4.81). Other houses do not vary in terms of thermal comfort in both times because of close geometric situations of courtyards and same radiance time on their intended point.
In addition, increasing sky view factor in open spaces will increase the direct sun radiance and consequently increase the mean radiance temperature. There is also a significant relationship between “mean radiant temperature” and “PMV thermal comfort index” so that increasing mean radiant temperature increases the thermal stress of individuals and reduces the thermal comfort.
Conclusion
The geometric situation of courtyards brings about difference in time and angle of direct sun radiance to the courtyard. The radiance difference leads in different thermal comfort to the dwellers. On the other hand, paying attention to the effect of direction in residential areas to prevent radiance is one of the main factors. It is worth noting that appropriate direction is southwest in Shiraz. According to the results, about 27° rotations towards north is optimal in such a way that the direction does not clear appropriate effectiveness unless it is mixed with the factors such as proportions, vegetation and so forth. Therefore, ratio of height to width, angle of widespread areas of courtyards and using adaptation measures (watering, relocation in seasons, planting various deciduous plants, etc.) should be taken into consideration in designing the open spaces next to residential buildings. Finally, it should be noted while building houses with central courtyard may not make sense in today urbanization situation; the resultant strategies can be luminous.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2735_2a1dbd3bd31f5293309775075d324fb2.pdfBu Ali Sina UniversityArchaeological Research of Iran2345-522592020190522Study of Symbolic Motifs in Mirroring (Aina-Kari) of Qajar Houses in Historical Texture of Yazd CityStudy of Symbolic Motifs in Mirroring (Aina-Kari) of Qajar Houses in Historical Texture of Yazd City203223273610.22084/nbsh.2019.18315.1888FASeyed FazlollahMirdehghanAssistant Professor, Department of Iranian Studies, Bu-Ali Sina UniversityHamidAziziPh.D in Archeology, University of TehranJournal Article20190128The historical texture of the city of Yazd houses various buildings of different periods in its heart and houses related to the Qajar period have a special place. Of these, twelve houses have mirrored decorations (Aina-kari) that embellish various motifs. This research is carried out using historical an analytical descriptive method. To this end, the sources of research, including written sources, have been gathered by library method and have been used to analyze the symbolic meanings of the intended motifs. The most important questions raised in this research are: What symbolic motifs have been used in mirroring of houses in Yazd? What is the symbolic origin of these motifs? The results of this research show that decorative motifs are classified into four general categories including herbal, animal, geometric and epigraphy. Each of these can include symbolic meanings. Many of these motifs have a special meaning in their pre-Islamic culture and have been used in Islamic culture either with the same concept or with little change as a symbol. Some of the motifs can be observed although they did not exist in pre-Islamic culture of Iran, but they also had an effect on Persian literature and used in applied arts because of their importance and emphasis on Islamic culture. Some of the motifs have important in Persian literature and are considered as symbols. Therefore, three origins can be used as the symbolic source of many motifs used in mirroring of Yazd city including Iran’s pre-Islamic culture, the Iranian Islamic culture and Persian literature.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Yazd City, Mirroring, Symbolic Motifs, Qajar Buildings.
Introduction
Architecture always represents the identity and culture of its productive people. In this regard, Islamic architecture has a special concept that has benefited from various motifs and designs in the decorations of various buildings, especially the interior of the buildings (Blair & Bloom, 2003). Some of these shapes also have a meaning behind them and paying attention to these motifs and designs will lead to understand Islamic architecture well.
The historical texture of Yazd city, with an area about 750 hectares, houses the most significant buildings of different periods, in which the houses belonging to the Qajar period have the special place. Up to now, twelve houses have been identified in this city that in addition to having a variety of decorative arts such as painting, stucco and miror work, there has also been used mirroring (Aini-kari). In this research, it is attempted to study the concepts and symbols associated with them.
Theoretical Principles
The symbol is related to something else impling or representing it “(Garberan, 1999: 24). These symbols generally originate from beliefs, and cultural background have had a great influence on their structure. This method is one of the oldest ways of expressing concepts, in which the primitive man expresses some of his mental concepts in the form of a symbol and attempts to communicate with others through symbolic signs (Khafshchian Moghadam and Yahaghi, 2011: 66).
Herbal Motifs
One of the most common decorations in Islamic art is the use of plant motifs in various branches of Islamic art that are used in the mirroring of historical houses of Yazd city considered in the categories of Arabesque, Khitan and Toranj motifs. It seems that one of the main sources of the influence of herbal motifs in Islamic art is Quran In addition to inspiration from the art of lands located in the Islamic empire such as Iran and Byzantium. In the Quran, more than 120 items are referred to Paradise, which describes it as a beautiful garden.
It seems that in ancient Iran, the presence of green trees is considered as a symbol of immortality and life. In the philosophy of the Zarthosht religion, Ameretat is considered the guardian of trees and plants, and in ancient Iran, some plants have been considered not only as the tree of life, but also as healing (Farahani et al 2016: 14). Among the herbal motifs, we can refer to Arabesque, Khitan and Toranj motifs.
Motifs of Epigraphy
Epigraphy is one of the decorative practices containing clear messages and meanings. Due to the application of epigraphy in writing of the Qur’an, it played a very important role in Islamic art. The highlight of the Arabic language comes from its ancient origins as a language with its history, as well as its role in the scripture of the Holy Qur’an, which is given to it by the Holy Face (Burckhardt, 2009: 44). The Holy Qur’an is a book sent down by God and initially verbally by the prophets’ companions and then written. The valuable position of the Qur’an in the Muslim community led to the special attention paid to the writing, decoration and illumination of the Qur’an and the verses in it (Ekhtiar & moor, 2012: 37). In some houses that have mirrored decorations, such as Arab, Malekzadeh and Shafipour, this decorative style is also used to write the text on the mirror by means of gypsum and Nastaliq’s handwriting.
Animal Motifs
According to religion of Islam, all living things able to move are created by God and obeyed by Him.So, the use of human and animal motifs in Islamic art is prohibited. However, in some places, especially non-religious places, these motifs have been used, which is not so common (Ghasemzadeh et al., 2013: 74). Different animal designs have been used in mirroring of Yazd city. Among the animal designs used in the mirrors of Yazd city, it is possible to mention the role of peacock, nightingale, head, parrot and pigeon, each of which has symbolic meaning.
Geometric Motifs
One of the most important features of Islamic decorations is the return to the origin and at the same time the eternity and infinity of God that this feature can be well observed in the geometric decorations of Islamic art (Mohammadian, 2016: 70). In general, Iranian artists, especially in Islamic/Iranian art, the decorative elements, such as geometric motifs, illustrate directly the unity of plurality and multiplicity and plurality in unity, and show the stability of change, and the creation of a spiritual atmosphere thus refer to the universe of monotheism.
One of the geometric motifs used in the mirror decorations of Yazd city is Shamsa. This role is basically located in the center of the roof, and other motifs are fused. In this way, firstly, a rectangular frame was created on the roof, and then decorated its interior with gemstones and geometric patterns.
Conclusion
As it was studied, in mirroring of Qajar houses in Yazd, there have been used different animal, geometric, herbal and epigraphy motifs, which are symbolically noticed behind their apparent appearance. Many of these motifs have a special meaning in their pre-Islamic culture and have been used in Islamic culture either with the same concept or with little change as a symbol. In this regard, some of the motifs, although not presented in pre-Islamic Iranian culture, have influenced both Persian literature and applied arts because of their importance and emphasis on Islamic culture. Some of the motifs are also important in Persian literature and are considered as symbols. Therefore, three origins can be used as the symbolic source of many motifs used in mirroring of Yazd city including Iran’s pre-post Islamic culture, and Persian literature.The historical texture of the city of Yazd houses various buildings of different periods in its heart and houses related to the Qajar period have a special place. Of these, twelve houses have mirrored decorations (Aina-kari) that embellish various motifs. This research is carried out using historical an analytical descriptive method. To this end, the sources of research, including written sources, have been gathered by library method and have been used to analyze the symbolic meanings of the intended motifs. The most important questions raised in this research are: What symbolic motifs have been used in mirroring of houses in Yazd? What is the symbolic origin of these motifs? The results of this research show that decorative motifs are classified into four general categories including herbal, animal, geometric and epigraphy. Each of these can include symbolic meanings. Many of these motifs have a special meaning in their pre-Islamic culture and have been used in Islamic culture either with the same concept or with little change as a symbol. Some of the motifs can be observed although they did not exist in pre-Islamic culture of Iran, but they also had an effect on Persian literature and used in applied arts because of their importance and emphasis on Islamic culture. Some of the motifs have important in Persian literature and are considered as symbols. Therefore, three origins can be used as the symbolic source of many motifs used in mirroring of Yazd city including Iran’s pre-Islamic culture, the Iranian Islamic culture and Persian literature.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Yazd City, Mirroring, Symbolic Motifs, Qajar Buildings.
Introduction
Architecture always represents the identity and culture of its productive people. In this regard, Islamic architecture has a special concept that has benefited from various motifs and designs in the decorations of various buildings, especially the interior of the buildings (Blair & Bloom, 2003). Some of these shapes also have a meaning behind them and paying attention to these motifs and designs will lead to understand Islamic architecture well.
The historical texture of Yazd city, with an area about 750 hectares, houses the most significant buildings of different periods, in which the houses belonging to the Qajar period have the special place. Up to now, twelve houses have been identified in this city that in addition to having a variety of decorative arts such as painting, stucco and miror work, there has also been used mirroring (Aini-kari). In this research, it is attempted to study the concepts and symbols associated with them.
Theoretical Principles
The symbol is related to something else impling or representing it “(Garberan, 1999: 24). These symbols generally originate from beliefs, and cultural background have had a great influence on their structure. This method is one of the oldest ways of expressing concepts, in which the primitive man expresses some of his mental concepts in the form of a symbol and attempts to communicate with others through symbolic signs (Khafshchian Moghadam and Yahaghi, 2011: 66).
Herbal Motifs
One of the most common decorations in Islamic art is the use of plant motifs in various branches of Islamic art that are used in the mirroring of historical houses of Yazd city considered in the categories of Arabesque, Khitan and Toranj motifs. It seems that one of the main sources of the influence of herbal motifs in Islamic art is Quran In addition to inspiration from the art of lands located in the Islamic empire such as Iran and Byzantium. In the Quran, more than 120 items are referred to Paradise, which describes it as a beautiful garden.
It seems that in ancient Iran, the presence of green trees is considered as a symbol of immortality and life. In the philosophy of the Zarthosht religion, Ameretat is considered the guardian of trees and plants, and in ancient Iran, some plants have been considered not only as the tree of life, but also as healing (Farahani et al 2016: 14). Among the herbal motifs, we can refer to Arabesque, Khitan and Toranj motifs.
Motifs of Epigraphy
Epigraphy is one of the decorative practices containing clear messages and meanings. Due to the application of epigraphy in writing of the Qur’an, it played a very important role in Islamic art. The highlight of the Arabic language comes from its ancient origins as a language with its history, as well as its role in the scripture of the Holy Qur’an, which is given to it by the Holy Face (Burckhardt, 2009: 44). The Holy Qur’an is a book sent down by God and initially verbally by the prophets’ companions and then written. The valuable position of the Qur’an in the Muslim community led to the special attention paid to the writing, decoration and illumination of the Qur’an and the verses in it (Ekhtiar & moor, 2012: 37). In some houses that have mirrored decorations, such as Arab, Malekzadeh and Shafipour, this decorative style is also used to write the text on the mirror by means of gypsum and Nastaliq’s handwriting.
Animal Motifs
According to religion of Islam, all living things able to move are created by God and obeyed by Him.So, the use of human and animal motifs in Islamic art is prohibited. However, in some places, especially non-religious places, these motifs have been used, which is not so common (Ghasemzadeh et al., 2013: 74). Different animal designs have been used in mirroring of Yazd city. Among the animal designs used in the mirrors of Yazd city, it is possible to mention the role of peacock, nightingale, head, parrot and pigeon, each of which has symbolic meaning.
Geometric Motifs
One of the most important features of Islamic decorations is the return to the origin and at the same time the eternity and infinity of God that this feature can be well observed in the geometric decorations of Islamic art (Mohammadian, 2016: 70). In general, Iranian artists, especially in Islamic/Iranian art, the decorative elements, such as geometric motifs, illustrate directly the unity of plurality and multiplicity and plurality in unity, and show the stability of change, and the creation of a spiritual atmosphere thus refer to the universe of monotheism.
One of the geometric motifs used in the mirror decorations of Yazd city is Shamsa. This role is basically located in the center of the roof, and other motifs are fused. In this way, firstly, a rectangular frame was created on the roof, and then decorated its interior with gemstones and geometric patterns.
Conclusion
As it was studied, in mirroring of Qajar houses in Yazd, there have been used different animal, geometric, herbal and epigraphy motifs, which are symbolically noticed behind their apparent appearance. Many of these motifs have a special meaning in their pre-Islamic culture and have been used in Islamic culture either with the same concept or with little change as a symbol. In this regard, some of the motifs, although not presented in pre-Islamic Iranian culture, have influenced both Persian literature and applied arts because of their importance and emphasis on Islamic culture. Some of the motifs are also important in Persian literature and are considered as symbols. Therefore, three origins can be used as the symbolic source of many motifs used in mirroring of Yazd city including Iran’s pre-post Islamic culture, and Persian literature.https://nbsh.basu.ac.ir/article_2736_c7d776e7b780c0929bd6fa15fb91c57d.pdf