دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Archaeological Landscape of Razavar Valley in the Neolithic Period, The Survey of the 8th-6th Millennium B.C. in the North of
Kermanshah Provinceچشمانداز باستانشناختی درۀ رازآور در دورۀ نوسنگی: بررسی استقرارهای هزارههای هشتم تا ششم پیش ازمیلاد شمال استان کرمانشاه732370410.22084/nbsh.2020.21133.2094FAشکوهخسرویاستادیار دانشکدۀ هنر و معماری، دانشگاه کردستان، سنندج، ایرانپاتریکپدرسندانشجوی دکتری باستان شناسی، دپارتمان مطالعات منطقه ای و بین فرهنگی دانشگاه کپنهاگ، کپنهاگ، دانمارک.سجادعلی بیگیاستادیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران.0000-0002-8258-7436جورودانشجوی دکتری باستانشناسی کالج دانشگاه لندن، لندن، انگلستانمحسنحیدری دستنائیاستادیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه شهید چمران، اهواز، ایران.بهزادمیلادیدکتری ژئومورفولوژی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران.حجتدارابیاستادیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران.0000-0003-1628-5090توبیاسریشتردانشیار دپارتمان مطالعات منطقه ای و بین فرهنگی دانشگاه کپنهاگ، کپنهاگ، دانمارک.پدرمورتنسناستاد دپارتمان مطالعات منطقه ای و بین فرهنگی دانشگاه کپنهاگ، کپنهاگ، دانمارک.Journal Article20200225Our information about Epipaleolithic and Neolithic period of the central Zagros has still mostly been limited to those fieldworks undertaken in the 1960-70 and that most of recent investigations in the region, specifically in Kermanshah, have not yet been fully published. Moreover, spatial distributions of the sites and their natural settings as well as their settlement patterns in the intermountain plains of the central Zagros are not well-known. This highlights significance and publication of any associated fieldwork in the region. Employing a descriptive-analytical approach, this article presents preliminary results of a recent pedestrian survey of the Epipaleolithic and Neolithic sites in the Razavar valley to the north of Kermanshah. The survey was undertaken as a part of a Joint Iranian-Danish Project entitled “Tracking Cultural and Environmental Change: Epipaleolithic and Neolithic in Central Zagros”. In this regard, the survey was concentrated on Pleistocene traces of the Razavar stream, some mountainous barren lands, rocky slopes, southern flanks of the valley, and agricultural lands above the old terraces. As a result, a total of 6 Neolithic sites were identified. Of these, the most spectacular one is Tappeh Salar Abad which sat on top of an old terrace of the stream and with a roughly 7m of deposit contains rich in stone artifacts, oysters, snails, charcoal, and ash. Natural setting, presence of thick archeological deposits, size, and the topography of the site all indicate that Salar Abad should have been an important settlement, similar to Sheikhi Abad in the nearby valley. Generally speaking, it seems that such key early Neolithic sites had commonly stablished in the niches of the intermountain valleys and plains Ganj Dareh, Sheikhi Abad, Ghazanchi, Chia Jani, and recently Salar Abad. Late Neolithic materials were also found in the valley which are reminiscent of the so-called Sarab and Siabid traditions and thereby show a regional cultural homogeneity.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Neolithic, Central Zagros, Kermanshah, Razravar Valley, Salar Abad.
Introduction
The Central Zagros, which covers parts of western Iran including provinces of Kermanshah, Ilam, Lorestan, and partially Hamedan, is of great importance in the Middle Eastern archeological, particularly prehistoric, studies. It is known as one of the early centers of the initial domestication during Neolithic period (Matthews et al. 2010; Darabi 2015). The pioneering research by Birdwood and his students in the 1960s (Braidwood et al. 1961; Hole et al., 1969; Flannery 1969) formed the basis of explanatory models of Neolithisation in Southwest Asia. Since then, much research has been done in the Levant and Turkey that has marginalized the role of the eastern Fertile Crescent, including the Central Zagros (Zeder 2011).
Due to a small number of oriented studies the distribution of the Epi-Paleolithic and Neolithic sites is unbalanced in the central Zagros in the way that large parts of the region are still faced with a lack of the remains of these periods. It is not even possible to speak clearly about the settlement patterns of this this time span in the region. The present research, which was conducted in July and August 2018 by a team of Iranian and Danish archaeologists, aimed to create a more accurate picture of the past landscape of the Razavar Valley and to present new evidence dated to late Pleistocene and early Holocene period for further research. Our initial focus was on a systematic survey to create a basic and conductive database. This paved the ground for better modeling the cultural and natural processes that had shaped the distribution of sites and also for purposeful investigating other specific areas of the Central Zagros in the future. Our aims were (a) to investigate the function of settlements and sites in the Epipaleolithic and Neolithic periods, (b) to recognize the settlement patterns of the time and their relationships with the geomorphology and geography of the region, (c) to identify the characteristics of cultural materials of Neolithic sites and (d) to find out regional connections and possible impacts of other cultural and geographical areas.
<strong>Research method, sampling strategy and the identified sites: </strong>As noted above, the survey of the Razavar valley was carried out with the main aim of identifying the Epipaleolithic and Neolithic sites to understand their settlement patterns and also to conduct further systematic studies in the future. In this regard, due to the variable environmental capability of the valley to attract the societies, a combination of intensive pedestrian survey in more favorable areas and also a less accurate method by using car in flooded areas or new alluvial fans was employed. Field recording was performed using two tablets and the data recording of each transect was based on a standard form (Mortimer computer program). Portable GPS devices were used to track the movements of each team member throughout the day, providing a precise record of which paths were walked and a means of verifying that transect intervals were maintained. The analysis of the findings including primary and secondary classification of the stone tools and photography and drawing of the samples was during the field season.
As a result, six Neolithic sites were identified. They are located in different locations with variable distance from water sources? And show different amount of surface materials. This could indicate their different functions. The sites can be classified into mounds and open air sites. However, the sites labeled Tappeh Qeysavand, Tappeh Salar Abad, smaller mound of Salar Abad (Tappeh Kouchak Salar Abad), 50 meters to the north of the early Neolithic site of Salar Abad, Ban Ghawrestan, Tappeh Gholam1 and Gholam2. The these Neolithic sites are all close to water sources and, due to the topography of the valley, are located inside the most fertile agricultural lands of the valley floor. Moreover, the narrow width of the valley provided the sites with an easy access to the surrounding mountainous areas. As seen in case of other Neolithic settlements in the central Zagros, the largest site of the valley (Salar Abad) has a maximum area of one hectare while others suggest smaller dimensions. With regard to the late Neolithic, presence of ceramics similar to Sarab and Siahbid styles in this valley shows a clear incorporation into wider cultural traditions of the region.
Conclusion
The entire valley floor which lies between 1330-1650 meters above sea level and in some limited cases higher altitude as well as all accessible locations was surveyed. It’s noteworthy that the area had been surveyed in 2007 which only one early Neolithic site (called Tappeh Qeysavand 5 and previously tested by Aurel Stein in the 1930s) was reported (Rezvani & Roustaei 2007; see: Stein, 1940: 413). Due to the intense development of agricultural lands, the rocky foothills and the existence of large Holocene terraces in parts of the valley floor, only 6 Neolithic sites were located, of which Tappeh Salar Abad is the most important one. Also findings of the late Neolithic period in this area indicate the prevalence of Sarab and Siahbid ceramic traditions in this valley showing a clear engagement to the cultural interactions of the central Zagros during the 7-6th millennia BC. Investigation and identification of a number of caves and rock shelters in the northern slopes of the southern heights of the valley were inconclusive as they all have visible bed rock and did not contain any archeological remains. The lack of any reliable sites from the Epi-Paleolithic period is somehow consistent with other areas of the Central Zagros where the number of sites of this period is reportedly rare.
برای چند دهه است که اطلاعات باستانشناختی از محوطههای فراپارینهسنگی و نوسنگی زاگرسمرکزی محدود به نتایج پژوهشهای دهههای 60 و 70 م. است و نتایج اغلب بررسیهای جدید، بهویژه در منطقۀ کرمانشاه بهعنوان بخش مهمی از زاگرسمرکزی، تاکنون منتشر نشده است. بههمین دلیل وضعیت پراکندگی محوطههای این دوران، مواد فرهنگی، وضعیت بهرهبرداری از منابع زیستمحیطی و الگوی استقراری در این منطقه همچنان در هالهای از ابهام است؛ از اینرو، بررسیهای جدید و انتشار نتایج آنها میتواند برخی از این معضلات را تا حدودی حل کند. این نوشتار با رویکرد توصیفی-تحلیلی تلاش میکند به پرسشهای مختلفی ازجمله ماهیت استقرارها و محوطههای دورههای مورد مطالعه، ویژگیهای مواد فرهنگی آنها و میزان تأثیر یا ارتباط این مواد فرهنگی با مناطق پیرامون پاسخ داده شود. فرض این پژوهش بر این پایه استوار بود که همچون سایر محوطههای واقع در منطقۀ کرمانشاه محوطههای شناسایی شده باید روستاهای کوچک و بزرگی باشند که مواد فرهنگی آنها تحتتأثیر سنت سراب-سیاهبید بوده است. بررسی این فصل تنها محدود به تراسهای قدیمی جنوب رودخانۀ رازآور، برخی از اراضی بایر کوهپایهای، دامنههای صخرهای، ارتفاعات جنوب رودخانه و اراضی کشاورزی سطح تراسهای قدیمی بود، که در نتیجه 6 محوطۀ دورۀ نوسنگی شناسایی گردید که مهمترین آنها تپۀ سالارآباد است. چشمانداز طبیعی و زمینشناسی، میزان نهشتههای باستانشناختی، وسعت و توپوگرافی محوطه نشان میدهد که سالارآباد احتمالاً استقراری مهم مشابه تپۀ شیخیآباد در این دره بوده است. بهنظر میرسد در منطقۀ کرمانشاه معمولاً استقرارهای بزرگ و مهمی از دورۀ نوسنگی در بخشهای مستعد درهها و دشتهای میانکوهی وجود دارد؛ گنجدره، شیخیآباد، قزانچی، چیاجانی و اکنون سالارآباد. یافتههای دورۀ با سفال، حاکی از رواج سنتهای سفالی سراب و سیاهبید در این دره است و نشان میدهد در دورۀ نوسنگی جدید نیز یکپارچگی مشهودی در مواد فرهنگی این نواحی وجود دارد.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Desert Edge Sites in the Bronze Ageمطالعۀ محوطه های حاشیۀ بیابان در عصر مفرغ3354370510.22084/nbsh.2020.20127.2015FAمجتبیخوارزمیدانشجوی دکترای باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان، سیستان و بلوچستان ایرانمهدیمرتضویدانشیار گروه باستان شناسی، پژوهشکدۀ علوم باستان شناسی، دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان، سیستان و بلوچستان، ایرانفریباموسی پور نگاریاستادیار گروه باستان شناسی، پژوهشکدۀ علوم باستان شناسی، دانشگاه سیستان و بلوچستان، سیستان و بلوچستان، ایران.Journal Article20190924The Desert edge Sites as a species of settlements of the Bronze Age are composed of other Sites due to different and unfavorable living conditions. So far, a general comparison of how and why the formation, growth, and decline of all these settlements have not been done. Despite these environmental differences, analyzes and interpretations of the formation, progress, and decline of all Bronze Age sites are evaluated with the same criteria. But the marginal areas of desert are largely ecologically poor and lack many sustainable ecological factors for sustainable settlement. The study area of the desert is located between the Indus Valley and Iran and the evidence suggests that these regions appeared in the late fourth millennium, growth has been in the mid-third millennium and decline in the late third millennium and early second millennium BC and the livelihoods were initially based on agricultural and livestock resources and then at the apex of their expansion, largely on the basis of production, access to mineral and industrial, commercial and non-agricultural resources. The main questions included the livelihoods and chronology of this area and some of the goals were to identify and study the process of desert margins formation and the patterns of livelihoods in the desert, distance from the desert, It was further studied and understand the variables that represent the different livelihood, economic and productive structure of desert marginal communities from other Bronze Age sites are examined. The research method is based on historical-analytical method; The results indicate the peak of flourishing these areas in the middle of the third millennium and according to statistical comparisons, nature of many of the desert margin sites, depended on the intermediary role of these areas in economic transactions as an element and the driving force and industrial production and export of raw materials have been crucial to the development of these sites.
<strong>Keywords:</strong> Desert Edge Sites, Bronze Age, Exchange, Trade, Industry, Mines.
Introduction
Desert as a natural phenomenon, has an important role in the structure of the adjacent areas. This role had an undeniable impact on the development of these areas in both negative dimension (environmental resource limitations) and positive (the formation of Sites on its margin and the conversion of sites as trade intermediaries). The studied Bronze Age sites includes Thar and Cholistan deserts on the margin of the Indus River, Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lout in Iran, Registan Desert in southern Afghanistan and South Karakum Desert in Turkmenistan. Most of the area’s topography is rough and harsh that it mainly consists of large deserts, high mountains, large valleys, wide plains and occasionally river deltas. Thus where there is no permanent water and vast land for agriculture, Regions cannot accommodate a large population as a result, the desire to connect with other areas to compensate for shortages and also the development of exchanges is a great way, not only to get out of isolation, rather, it is persistence over time. Study of the formation of the desert margin areas and its relationship to contemporary fertile areas, as well as the general revision of widespread intervention in these areas, it can provide an overview of the livelihoods and communications of the desert margins. One of the reasons for dealing with the margins sites in the Bronze Age is the development of these areas and patterns of livelihoods during this period; that’s why chronology of this region is necessary In order to Behavioral patterns of living. In the present study, It has been attempted by using statistical comparisons of these areas, environmental, cultural interactions, comparative chronology, regional communication, livelihood review each of the areas mentioned by the remains of sites be investigated and compare the rise and fall of these areas in the Bronze Age. In order to achieve these goals, it has been attempted to investigate environmental and acquisition factors (trades, communication routs, etc.).
<strong>Questions Discussed in This Article:</strong> 1. Does the comparative chronology of the Bronze Age margin sites overlap? 2. What were the livelihoods of wilderness areas in each study area?
Existing evidence suggests that these regions differ in their occurrence, but overlap to some extent in most areas. Depending on the margin desert sites in what areas are located; their livelihoods are different. The Research Methodology used is historical-analytical. Then using library studies and Statistical population, areas of study are discussed.
Article Text
In the Indus River Basin, four types of settlements have been identified which Includes Harappa-type settlements, early Harappa settlements or Kot Diji phase, or middle Harappa settlements, and later Harappa settlements. In the desert margin sites of Lout, The emergence and decline of the sites was simultaneous with late Chalcolithic and late Bronze Age. But the situation is somewhat different in the sites of Dasht-e Kavir margin. The formation of the Tepe Hisar in the Chalcolithic Age and its decline in the Iron Age and Gholvi Darwish is simultaneous with Protoliterate and period A is related to the Iron Age. On the margin of the southern desert of Turkmenistan, Geoksur basin sites emerge from the Middle Chalcolithic Age and disappear in the early Bronze Age. In intermundane sites, from the early Chalcolithic, the desert margin sites are beginning to emerge in these areas and in the late Bronze Age, The sites become smaller and by the end of this period they will all be abandoned. There are two different types of livelihoods in Turkmenistan’s desert margin sites in the Geoksur and Northern Kopet Dag basins: In the settlements north of the Kopet Dag, It seems that extensive farming is common in sites such as Altyndepe and Namazgah. The industrial dimension is more clearly seen in the sites, In Iran’s sites, especially in Shahr-e Sokhteh, Shahdad, Hisar and Arisman, The economy and livelihoods were largely based on trade, the production of semi-finished goods, the manufacture of precious and semi-precious stones. Although the number of Indus margin sites is not comparable to other sites, but there is an egregious difference in the extent and time sequence of each settlement in these areas, and even though have a relatively large range, but in terms of stratigraphic sequence, they cover a short time span, so that no area can be found that has a regular and consistent stratigraphy sequence.
Conclusion
AS for the variety of sites on the desert margin, progress and cultural sequence and livelihoods have varied in each of these areas; these areas were mainly were located in the affected areas that they could fill the vacuum caused by long routes on the safe margins that the desert created and organized trades communications and by controlling the security, supply, and processing of certain industries such as semi-precious and precious stones, metals. In the desert margin sites of Iran and Turkmenistan, apart from their different environments, the economic structure was generally based on trade with other regions, but in the desert margin sites of the eastern part of Indus, The structures were formed semi-nomadic and camp site. In most of the desert margin sites, there was a large site that other sites were exchanged with this site and this structure would concentrate power and wealth in these areas so that was the result of communication with other major civilization centers. Thus, the result was a connection with other important centers of civilization. The Sites went into decline in late Bronze Age, this was due to a number of reasons, including the redirection of trade’s routes and communication was totally cut off and endangered the nature of these sites.محوطههای حاشیۀ بیابان بهعنوان یک گونه از استقرارهای عصر مفرغ، بهواسطۀ شرایط زیستی متفاوت و نامساعد، از سایر محوطهها ایجاد شدهاند. تاکنون یک مطالعۀ مقایسهای راجعبه چگونگی و علل تشکیل، رشد و افول این نوع از استقرارها انجام نشده است. باوجود این تفاوتهای محیطی، تحلیلها و تفاسیر راجعبه تشکیل، پیشرفت و سقوط همۀ محوطههای عصر مفرغ با یک معیار و سنجش یکسانی ارزیابی میشوند، اما محوطههای حاشیۀ بیابانی عمدتاً دارای شرایط سخت زیستمحیطی و فاقد بسیاری از فاکتورهای پایدار بومشناختی، برای یک اسکان پایدار هستند. حوزۀ بیابانی مورد مطالعه بین درۀ رود سند و ایران قرار گرفته است. اهداف اصلی پژوهش، شامل درک شیوۀ معیشت و گاهنگاری تطبیقی این مناطق بود که در طی آن درک مناسبی از روند شکلگیری، پیشرفت و فروپاشی محوطههای حاشیه بیابان و الگوهای معیشتی در موقعیت بیابانی میسر گشت. روش پژوهش برمبنای روش تحلیلی-توصیفی صورت گرفته است. پرسشهای پژوهش عبارتنداز: 1-گاهنگاری تطبیقی ظهور، پیشرفت و فروپاشی محوطههای عصر مفرغ حاشیۀ بیابان چگونه بوده است؟ 2- شیوههای معیشتی محوطههای عصر مفرغ حاشیۀ بیابان چگونه بوده است؟ و چه عواملی در شکلگیری و پیشرفت محوطههای عصر مفرغ حاشیه بیابان مؤثر بودهاند؟ شواهد بهدستآمده، نشان میدهد که ظهور محوطههای عصر مفرغ در این مناطق در اواخر هزارۀ چهارم پیشازمیلاد، توسعۀ آنها در اواسط هزارۀ سوم پیشازمیلاد و افول آنها در اواخر هزارۀ سوم و اوایل هزارۀ دوم پیشازمیلاد بوده است. علاوهبر آن، شیوۀ معیشتی این محوطهها در ابتدا مبتنیبر منابع کشاورزی و دامداری و سپس در مرحلۀ توسعه، عمدتاً برمبنای دسترسی به منابع معدنی، راههای تجاری و فعالیتهای صنعتی بوده است. نتایج گویای ساختار متفاوت معیشتی و اقتصادی جوامع حاشیۀ بیابان به نسبت سایر محوطههای عصر مفرغ است.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Effect of Natural Factors in Spatial Distribution of Archaeological Sites, During the Elamite Period Ardal;
Case Study the Sites in Karst Landscapeمطالعۀ نقش عوامل محیطی در توزیع استقرارهای ایلام قدیم و میانۀ شهرستان اردل، با تأکید بر چشم انداز کارست5574370610.22084/nbsh.2019.18086.1874FAعلیرضاخسروزادهدانشیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه شهرکرد، شهرکرد، ایران.0000-0002-2963-0896علیاعرابدانشجوی دکتری باستان شناسی، گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایرانافشینخسروثانیدانش آموختۀ کارشناسی ارشد باستان شناسی، گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران.مینابهرامی نیادانش آموختۀ کارشناسی ارشد اقلیم شناسی در برنامه ریزی محیطی، گروه جغرافیا، پردیس علوم انسانی و اجتماعی، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران.Journal Article20190101Environmental factors have always played a significant role in the formation of human settlements. One of these environmental factors is karst. Karst regions have very specific geographical conditions. In this article, the impact of karst on the formation and continuation of Elamite settlements in Ardal County has been studied. Landscape features of karst, such as poor soil for agriculture and difficult access to surface water, are not suitable for sedentary life. Distribution of population and human settlements in a geographical area has a great influence on the structure and function of human activities. Not only will these distribution patterns be affected by social and cultural factors, they were highly dependent on natural phenomena; because nature is a context of human geographical activities. In this paper, we have studied and analyzed the role of environmental factors in spatial distribution and configuration of human settlements during the Elamite period in Ardal Count. Karst landscape is useful for nomadic people and we can understand such a life in Elamite era among the archaeological evidence and Mesopotamian inscriptions. Therefore, this study attempted to explore these regions from the Elamite era through an interdisciplinary approach involving archaeology, Archaeometry and history of northern Susa and Anshan.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Karst, Ardal, Elamite Era, Lu. Su, Nomadism.
Introduction
The geographical determinism has sometimes definitely restricted social development and opens up at times an opportunity to development social factors. Social conditions is always under the influence of environmental indicators and one of which is karst; indeed, one of the geographical determinants can be found in the so-called karst landscape. Karst structures are a part of those environments that due to their inherent sensitivity, specific hydrological and geomorphic complexities, it has not been possible to interfere with and therefore human beings have long tried to adapt themselves to this environment. However, about 25 per cent of the world’s population lives in karst areas (Veni et al. 2001: 69). Due to inadequate agricultural soil, demanding access to surface water, and complex geographic conditions (Telbisz et al. 2013: 140), karst areas have generally not been appropriate places for permanent settlement in the ancient times. However, the Zagros Mountains have been regarded as one of the most important dwelling regions of Iran from the distant past and all karst forms and features, including karst springs, forests, karen, cave and rocky shelters can be observed (Ghorbani 2015: 519). Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, located in central Zagros, has a capacity of over 60% from the perspective of karst conditions (Raeisi 2014: 1-5). There are many karst springs in the province, among which the most famous ones are Pir Cave, Shalamzar, Farrokhshahr, Brom Lordegan, Dimeh, Sadan and Sarab Babahidar (Riahiipour & Khalili 2012). Of the karst formations located in this province, it can be refered to Asmari, Sarvak and Ilam ones (Chitsazan et al. 2016: 97).
<strong>Aims and research necessity: </strong>Regarding the issue of mobilization in the Iranian plateau, many archaeologists have addressed role of this lifestyle in the social structure of prehistoric societies (Alden 2015; Abdi 2003; Alizadeh et al. 2010); however, this lifestyle as an entity as a whole, and its formation under the influence of the karst landscape in the historical era (Ilam) have received little attention. Therefore, the present study seeks to address one of the most important prospects in central Zagros, namely karst, and also devote itself to study concerning mobilization using remote sensing, and historical sources including Elamite place names.
<strong>Research questions and assumptions:</strong> Considering the considered topic, in order to come to the favorable aims, the present article intend to addressed this question that has the geological situation of the region, especially the karst landscape structure, had any effect on the type of settlements of the old and middle Elam periods and how these impacts is visible in their nomadic subsistence?
<strong>Research method:</strong> In order to achieve the desired results, the role of environmental and geographical factors on how Elam’s period settlements using archaeological surveys of the region and their location in GIS maps are studied; also, the role of karst formations as one of the most important features of the earth in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province will be evaluated.
Karst landscape in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province and Ardal County
Karst landscape is one of the most important geological formations of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province. Despite the importance of this formation in the forming of ancient settlements, little attention has so far been paid in archaeology of Iran. The most important karst landscapes in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province are the Asmari-Ilam and Sarvak formations. This landscape is crucial in determining how ancient settlements has been located. Among sites under study in Ardal County and based on Esmaeili Jelodar’s and Khosrowzadeh archaeological surveys in two central and midland sections (Esmaeili Jelodar 2007; Khosrowzadeh 2008; 2009; 2010) and their location in GIS environmental maps, 56.25 per cent of identified settlements in the central part of Ardal (18 settlements) have been formed on the karst formation (figure 1 & 2). This figure is higher for the midland area and is equal to 74.6 per cent (56 settlements), which would be an interesting figure for the Elamite settlements in the region. Therefore, it can be said that throughout Ardal County, 65.4 per cent of the Elamites settlements have been formed on karst settlements (Figures 1 and 2). It is interesting to note that despite the importance of this landscape in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, few archaeological sites of the province have been studied with such a view. It should be noted that karst not only played an environmental role in human settlements (in here Elam period) but also influenced the behavior, beliefs and social conditions of the inhabitants themselves (Stevanovic, 2015: 22). Therefore, locating the high percentage of Elamite sites on karst areas will be quite noticeable.
Conclusion
As identified, environmental factors have had a considerable role in the Elamite settlements of the Ardal County. In Ardal, karst and factors related to it can be known as the most significant reason behind dwelling in the Elam period; considering importance of this topic and lack of conducted studies so far concerning karst in ancient settlements of Charmahal Bakhtiari province, the article intends to examine this topic.
Karst is one of the important landscapes of the Zagros region; given the abundance of this landscape, the karst in archaeology has not been adequately studied in the way it deserved to. Caves, rock shelters, and abundant springs besides Cherts caused karst areas to be suitable for humans in the Paleolithic era. However, by reason of inappropriate soil for agriculture and demanding access to surface water, Karst areas has not been suitable for rural life and urbanization in historical epochs. Nevertheless, the existence of abundant pastures and springs in karst areas of Zagros are the appeals that has attracted human beings to this areas. In Ardal County, 65 per cent of the Elamite settlements has been located in the karst landscape; hence, it does not should appear very simplistic, but it should be studied correctly and with scientific approaches.
عوامل محیطی همواره در شکلگیری و چگونگی استقرارهای انسانی نقش تعیینکنندهای داشتهاند. یکی از این عوامل محیطی «کارست» نام دارد. مناطق کارستی شرایط جغرافیایی بسیار ویژهای دارند که در این پژوهش برروی تأثیر کارست بر شکلگیری و تداوم استقرارهای ایلامی شهرستان اردل مطالعه شده است. ویژگیهای چشمانداز کارست، مانند «خاک» نهچندان مناسب برای کشاورزی و دسترسی دشوار به آب سطحی، بهگونهای است که برای زندگی یکجانشینی چندان مناسب نیست؛ همچنین عوامل جغرافیایی دیگر مرتبط با کارست ازجمله شیب زمین، دوران زمینشناسی و ارتفاع از سطح دریا در مورد استقرارهای ایلامی شهرستان اردل بهگونهای هستند که تنها زندگی کوچنشینی را در بخشهایی از این چشمانداز میسر کرده است. این درحالیست که برخی از پژوهشگران زندگی کوچنشینی در فلات ایران در دوران تاریخی را چندان ممکن نمیدانند؛ از اینرو در پژوهش حاضر پرسشی که مطرح شده آن است که، نقش کارست در شکلگیری استقرارهای ایلام قدیم و میانه در شهرستان اردل به چه صورت بوده و این چشمانداز چه تأثیری در زندگی کوچنشینی در این منطقه طی دورۀ ایلام قدیم و میانه داشته است؟ روش مدنظر در اینجا، ترسیم نقشههای GIS با مشخص کردن گسترۀ کارست و پراکنش محوطههای ایلامی نسبت به آنها است. در کنار آن، توجه به منابعتاریخی نیز میتواند راهگشا باشد و شاید بتوان با مطالعهی جاینامهای ایلامی، برخی از جاینامهای آنرا در منطقۀ یادشده جایابی نمود؛ بهعنوان نمونه برخی از محققان جاینام «لو.سو» را برای حدود منطقۀ بختیاری پیشنهاد دادهاند. جاینامی که بخشی از منطقۀ «سیمشکی» بوده و احتمالاً مردمانی کوچنشین داشته است؛ در واقع شهرستان اردل بهعنوان بخشی از منطقۀ بختیاری با حداقل 65% استقرار کوچنشینی در دورۀ ایلام که در پژوهش حاضر مشخص گردید، میتواند نمونهای از معیشت کوچنشینی در دورۀ ایلام قدیم و میانه و در منطقۀ سیمشکی در هزارههای سوم و دوم پیشازمیلاد باشد که در چشمانداز کارست و با توجه به منابع محیطی آن شکل گرفته است.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121A Reflection on the Function of Some of the Interior Elements of Sassanid Fire Temples:
Matching the Eastern Fars and Western Kerman Regions’ Discoveries with Western Iran’s Findingsتأملی در کاربری برخی عناصر داخلی نیایشگاههای دورهی ساسانی: منطبق سازی یافتههای نواحی شرقی فارس و غرب کرمان با شواهد باستانشناختی مناطق غرب ایران7596370710.22084/nbsh.2019.17943.1868FAعلیرضازبان آوردانشجوی دکترای باستان شناسی، گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات، علوم انسانی و اجتماعی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد علوم و تحقیقات، تهران، ایران.0000-0002-9290-3818محمدمرتضاییدانشیار پژوهشکدۀ باستان شناسی پژوهشگاه میراث فرهنگی و گردشگری، تهران، ایرانرضاشعبانی صمغانیاستاد گروه تاریخ، دانشکدۀ ادبیات، علوم انسانی و اجتماعی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد علوم و تحقیقات، تهران، ایران.Journal Article20181217The proposed functions for some of the interior elements in the Sassanid fire temples have been always based on the finds in the western regions of Iran, while the same materials from the southern Iran have been neglected. The discovered stone and plaster bases which are usually interpreted as fireplaces’ bases have been observed in some sites on southern Iran, as well as several stone-plaster platforms which can give us some insightful information about the religious culture of Sassanid empire in the southern Iran. The present study tries to uncover the function of these architectural elements based on the archeological evidences from southern Iran especially eastern Fars and western Kerman and comparing them with the results obtained in other regions, written resources and also Zoroastrian traditions. The nature of the present study is historical and analytical – descriptive and the data collection method followed the field studies and library researches methods. All of the obtained and related evidences were collected and compared with the same monuments and finally the results were matched with the written sources and Zoroastrian traditions. The results of the present research revealed that probably the stone – plaster platforms in the religious Sassanid sites in southern Iran are the equivalent of the plaster bases or platforms discovered in Sassanid fire temples in western Iran, known as the T-form platforms. Their function can be related to Yazišn and their surrounding space can be interpreted as the yazišngāh or urwīsgāh. The present study attempts to make a logical connection between the archeological evidences and written resources in order to identify the function of the interior architectural elements inside Sassanid fire temples.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Sassanid Period, Religious Structures, Fars, Kerman, Platform.
Introduction
The Sassanid written resources do not provide many information about the religious rituals in the sanctuaries and temples. The archeological evidences are not enough to answer all the ambiguities and questions. Therefore, we decided to compare the archeological evidences with the written Zoroastrian texts during Islamic period and also matching the archeological finds with the current Zoroastrian traditions, because regardless of the differences between the today’s Zoroastrianism and Sassanid Period’s Zoroastrianism, we can witness some similarities between them. Despite all of the theories about the interior architectural elements in religious Sassanid monuments, the main religious regions during Sassanid era, i.e. Fars province and Kerman province were neglected and most of the researches in this regard were focused on the western Iran. The authors of the present study tried to focus on the recent discoveries in eastern Fars and western Kerman such as Tang-e ChakChak, Mil-e Naqareh, SoltanAbad-e Darabagh and AliAbad-e Shamshirbor, and the results of field studies and their comparison with archeological evidences from similar regions in Eslamabad-e Gharb and Takht-e Soleiman. Later all of these evidences and discoveries were studied during a library research with the written resources and Zoroastrian traditions in order to functionally interpret the discovered elements and shed lights on the inner complexities of Sassanid religious structures. The preset study focused on answering some basic questions regarding the interior elements of Sassanid Chahar-Taqi. First is the extended of overlap between the discovered architectural elements in eastern Fars and Western Kerman with the architectural elements discovered in adjacent regions; second, can we equalize them with the platform structures discovered in the western Iran from the functional point of view? And finally, in case of matching the discoveries in the two mentioned regions and considering them equivalent, what would be the function of the spaces with these types of platforms? One of the possible hypotheses is that, the stone elements discovered in the surrounding area are similar to the complementary elements of the discovered structures in the studied Chahar-Taqis or fire temples and today there is no trace of them left behind. It is also probable that the discovered platforms in the southern region of Iran have had the same functional as their discovered equivalent in western regions of Iran. And finally, they were functioning as the yazišngāh during Sassanid period.
Discussion
The common points between the discoveries in eastern Fars and western Kerman and the evidences obtained from Takht-e Soleiman and Eslamabad-e Gharb is that in all them the platform have been extended until the center of the cruciform space, therefore these structure are different from other sites such as Vigol where the platform is built beside the closed vaults. Based on the discoveries from Eslamabad-e Gharb and those in southern Iran, we can conclude that the location and the situation of the T-shape platforms are equivalent with the rectangular platforms in Fars and Kerman which had an extended section from the vault until the middle of the Chahar-Taqi. Also the T-shape platforms of western Iran are shorter than their equivalent in southern Iran, but based on Rezvani’s report that states the bases were fixed on the platform of Shiyan fire temple, we can conclude that the plaster bases and platform were the features of a unique architectural element and they should not be considered separately. Therefore, we can consider the T-shaped platforms to be higher and with regard to the two first hypotheses of Moradi, the upper section of these platforms were flat and had a similar function to the rectangular platforms in the southern regions of Iran. Based on the shape of the current yazišngāh, we can compare their triple platforms with the rectangular or T-shape platforms with a fireplace’s base and a similar function; so that, in the rectangular platform, the Zoti Khwan and Alat khwan sections are the same and in the T-shape platforms the upper section is Zoti Khwan and the attached section to the vase of fireplace can be the Alat khwan. However, regarding the architectural differences of urwīsgāh in today’s fire temples with the architectural space B in Takht-e Soleiman, we can believe that the only reason for this difference is the evolutions of Zoroastrian traditions due to the changes in their society as the religious minorities during the first centuries of Islamic period.
Conclusion
The results of this study revealed that the architectural elements such as the platforms discovered in Fars and Kerman provinces by the authors of this study, named as rectangular platforms, have had a completely unique function similar to the T-form platforms discovered in the western Iran. We also believe that the stone cubes discovered during a field survey in southern Fars region and Persian Gulf coast, were the complementary part of the rectangular bases which probable were the platforms or ponds, already identified in the architectural space B in Takht-e Soleiman and Eslamabad-e Gharb’s sites. In order to understand and comprehend the function of the platform mentioned in this study, we matched them with the references in written resources such as the Rivayat-e Darab Hormozdyar and also the current Zoroastrian sanctuaries, as well as the comparison with the stone tables in the urwīsgāh. Finally, we concluded that, the Chahar-Taqi (fire temples) with these platforms were probably functioning as the urwīsgāh during Sassanid period. However, the current differences between the architectural structures of contemporary urwīsgāh and Sassanid Chahar-Taqi, can be attributed to the passage of time and the conducted changes in the Islamic period, when the Zoroastrians turned from the majority of the population to the minority of the population, and faced some restrictions and limitations forced by the Muslim majority.
تاکنون و در رابطه با پیشنهادهای ارائهشده دربارۀ کارکرد برخی عناصر یافتشدۀ داخل نیایشگاههای ساسانی به یافتههای نواحی جنوب ایران توجه نشده و بیشتر براساس یافتههای غرب ایران نتیجهگیری شده است. تا به امروز در تعدادی از محوطههای ساسانی جنوب ایران، علاوهبر یافتشدن تعدادی پایۀ سنگی و گچی که معمولاً بهنام «پایۀ آتشدان» تفسیر شدهاند، تعدادی سکوهای سنگی-گچی نیز یافتشده که میتواند در کنار این پایهها تحلیلی نوین از فرهنگ مذهبی دورۀ ساسانی در جنوب ایران ارائه دهد. در این پژوهش سعی گردیده تا براساس شواهد باستانشناختی مناطق جنوبی ایران، بهویژه نواحی شرقی فارس و غرب کرمان و مقایسه و سنجش آنها با یافتههای سایر مناطق، منابع مکتوب و رسومات مرتبط با زرتشتیگری، به نحوۀ کارکرد این عناصر پیبرد. مهمترین پرسش پژوهش عبارتنداز: سکوهای مورد مطالعه چه کاربردی داشته اند؟ فرضیهای که میتوان برای این پرسش درنظر گرفت کاربری مذهبی عناصر یاد شده است. تحقیق پیشِرو از منظر ماهیت و روش از نوع تحقیقات تاریخی و توصیفی-تحلیلی بوده و روش گردآوری اطلاعات در آن، بدینترتیب است که در مرحلۀ نخست، بهصورت میدانی-کتابخانهای یافتههای مرتبط با موضوع پژوهش موردمطالعه و سنجش با سایر سازههای مشابه و همراستا قرارگرفته و سپس سعیشده تا بهصورت کتابخانهای نتایج بهدستآمده از نخستین مرحله با منابع مکتوب و رسومات آیین زرتشتی منطبقسازی شوند. برآیند حاصل از این پژوهش این نکته را مطرح میکند که احتمالاً کاربرد سکوهای سنگی-گچی بهدستآمده از برخی محوطههای مذهبی دورۀ ساسانی در جنوب ایران با سکوها و پایههای گچی موجود در برخی نیایشگاههای ساسانی بهویژه در غرب ایران که به «سکوی Tشکل» معروفند، یکسان بوده و میتوان کارکرد اینگونه عناصر را در رابطه با مراسمی همچون «یزشن» و فضاهای دربرگیرندۀ این عناصر را نیز بهعنوان «یزشنگاه» یا «اورویسگاه» تفسیر نمود. این نوشتار از این منظر میتواند موردتوجه و اهمیت باشد که سعی در ایجاد رابطه میان شواهد باستانشناختی و منابع مکتوب بهمنظور تعیین کارکرد برخی عناصر داخلی نیایشگاههای ساسانی دارد.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Affecting Factors of Iranian Historic Bridges Architecture Generation on Uneven Areasعوامل تأثیرگذار بر شکلگیری معماری پلهای تاریخی ایران در مناطق ناهموار97118370810.22084/nbsh.2020.20330.2030FAاحدنژاد ابراهیمیدانشیار دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه هنر اسلامی تبریز، تبریز، ایران0000-0001-6025-1942ائلنازنظرزاده عنصرودیکارشناس ارشد معماری، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه هنر اسلامی تبریز، تبریز، ایران.فرنازنظرزاده عنصرودیکارشناس ارشد فناوری معماری، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه هنر اسلامی تبریز، تبریز، ایران.Journal Article20191025As architectural elements, bridges have served as connective structures since old times. The functional value of bridges is a reason why researchers have paid insufficient attention to environmental and climatic factors despite the fact that bridges are directly affected by contextual conditions in terms of their form and structure. It is not surprising that before bridges, as architectural elements, were constructed to overcome natural obstacles and, in particular, to pass across rivers and valleys, our ancestors used to face serious barriers that limited the expansion of human civilizations to other places. For instance, bridges that are built in areas with rugged terrain are characterized by fundamentally different criteria which require detailed research. Conducted through a descriptive-analytical and historical-comparative method based on comparative research, the present study aims to explore the formation of bridges in areas with rugged terrain in terms of the three principles of function, form and structure. The findings suggest that in mountainous areas with rugged terrain, bridges are often built over valleys to facilitate transportation, hence, lacking any sign of decoration or embellishment in the formal aspect. In addition, maintaining a solid structure and strong foundation work via the use of stone and bricks are of special importance. In conclusion, special topographic features in mountainous areas lead to specific subtleties in the bridge structure. In terms of function, bridges in areas with rugged terrain are built, in the first place, to facilitate transportation across natural obstacles, which made it impossible or difficult to pass across. From the physical perspective, because bridges in areas with rugged terrain are mostly built for their function and role in communication, less attention is paid to decoration. After all, in terms of structure, foundation work, subgrade construction and reinforcement for resistance and durability are of crucial importance to make possible the transportation of vehicles and pedestrians, all of which require the application of solid materials in mountainous areas with rugged terrain.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Bridge Construction, Architecture, Uneven Bed, Historic Bridges.
Introduction
As human beings, we bore tunnels through mountains and build bridges over valleys, rivers and cracks in the ground to overcome natural obstacles. The bridge structure has been constantly evolving as a man-made masterpiece that facilitates internal and external communication for societies. Considering Persia’s intermediary position for connecting the East and West through major trade route networks, especially the Silk Road, Persian architects had been dedicated throughout history to building bridges and tunnels that made possible passing across natural obstacles, facilitated transportation and served as strategic constructs during times of attack and defense. However, with the expansion of transportation vehicles, routes gained an especially critical value. It was then that Persian architects began experimenting with the bridge structure according to the requirements of time and climate and turned it into something that was no longer just a means of passage but also served secondary purposes. These globally unprecedented alterations to the bridge structure and its related amenities have been documented in various travelogues by visiting explorers.
Hypothesize of investigation is: that climate zone and type of terrain affect the formation of suburban bridges. Contrary to the principles governing the design of urban bridges, suburban bridges are subject to functionality and regional climate. In other words, the number of arches and the general shape of a suburban bridge are a function of component specifications, water flow conditions and the water discharge capacity of the bridge’s central and largest arch. However, before we can define an authentic theoretical framework to test this hypothesis in the case of historic bridges in Iran, it is necessity to study the different aspects of the formation and development of bridge structures after identifying and statistically categorizing them in climatic terms.
Identified Traces
<strong>- Function: </strong>Bridges are often built for making connections. The largest number of connective bridges have been built over rivers to link the two sides together. The bridges that were built in Mazandaran province in the first Pahlavi era were merely for railway transportation. In some cases, bridges were built on seasonal rivers which are currently dry.
<strong>- Form: </strong>Number and span: Our study of a large number of bridges in various climates shows that bridges built in warm and humid climate zones are characterized by the longest spans whereas those built in mild and humid climate zones are characterized by the shortest spans. However, in cold mountain climates, bridges are mostly short-spanned but their number is considerably higher, which is due to the special topography of such climates.
<strong>Arches:</strong> Most of Iran’s bridges have 1 or 3 arches with a pattern in which the central arch features a longer span and the two subsidiary arches have shorter spans.
<strong>Decoration:</strong> In bridge construction, decoration is much less a concern because the architect is mostly concerned with the strength and endurance of the bridge. Decorations often take the form of brickwork on the bridge façade.
<strong>- Structure: </strong>Bridge Construction Materials: Most of the materials used in the construction of bridges are stone and bricks. Bricks were used mostly for decorating. In the construction of bridge piers, stone, sarooj and lime mortar are common materials. In most cases, river rocks from the same area were cut for construction purposes. Arches were usually built with bricks and plaster. In cases where a bridge was built over a river, breakwaters were also embedded in the structure of the bridge. Triangular breakwaters were used for rivers with high discharge whereas semicircular breakwaters were used for rivers with low discharge. In some cases, bridges incorporated small rooms for guardianship or for passengers to rest. Bridge piers also included some overflow channels to allow for safe passage in times of flood.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is important to identify the unique features of bridges built in areas with rugged terrain with special conditions as important elements of Iranian architecture and the climatic principles and indicators of the architecture of Iranian bridges in the past according to the three principles of architecture laid out above. In terms of function, bridges in areas with rugged terrain are built, in the first place, to facilitate transportation across natural obstacles, which made it impossible or difficult to pass across. From the physical perspective, because bridges in areas with rugged terrain are mostly built for their function and role in communication, less attention is paid to decoration. After all, in terms of structure, foundation work, subgrade construction and reinforcement for resistance and durability are of crucial importance to make possible the transportation of vehicles and pedestrians, all of which require the application of solid materials in mountainous areas with rugged terrain.«پل» از گذشته همچون یک گونۀ معماری، همواره بهعنوان عامل ارتباطی وجود داشته و کاربردی بودن آن موجب شده است تا پژوهشگران کمتر به جنبه محیطی و بستر طبیعی ساخت آن توجه کنند. این درحالیست که شکلگیری پلها در راستای پاسخگویی به شرایط زمینهای بوده و محیط و بستر در شکلگیری نوع و ساختار پل تأثیرگذار بوده است. پل در مناطق ناهموار، مصداق بارزی از معماری متأثر از بستر طبیعی است. پل در مناطق ناهموار معیارهای بنیادی متفاوتی دارد که نیازمند مطالعه و پژوهش برای شناسایی این تفاوتها است. هدف این پژوهش مطالعۀ چگونگی شکلگیری معماری پل ناهموار با درنظر گرفتن سه مؤلفۀ کارکرد، کالبد و سازه میباشد. روش پژوهش توصیفی-تحلیلی و تاریخی-تطبیقی مبتنیبر مطالعات اسنادی و کتابخانهای براساس منابع و اطلاعات تاریخی است. بدینصورت که در گام اول این پژوهش، شناسایی و بررسی آماری پلها از منظر بستر طبیعی، عوامل مختلف مؤثر در شکلگیری و تحول پلها مطالعه گردیده تا در گام دوم، در سامانۀ سهگانۀ کارکرد، کالبد و سازه آنها مورد تحلیل قرار گیرد و دستهبندی برای متغیرهای معماری پل ارائه شود. در اینراستا، مدل سهگانه برگرفته از سامانۀ بنیادی سهگانۀ ویترویوس اصل اساسی پژوهش قرار گرفت. در گام سوم، بر پایۀ مطالعات تطبیقی، اطلاعات جمعآوری شده در مبانی و ساختار تحقیق و عوامل مؤثر بر شکلگیری معماری پل ناهموارها مورد مطالعه قرار گرفت. نتایج تحقیق نشان میدهد کارکرد پل در مناطق ناهموار به صورت عامل ارتباطی برروی دره است و در کالبد و ظاهر آن اثری از تزئینات و عنصر الحاقی نبوده و ساختار و بسترسازی مستحکم از اهمیت ویژهای در آن برخوردار بوده که شامل سنگ و آجر میباشد. درنتیجه، پل در مناطق ناهموار سبب پدید آمدن سامانۀ بنیادی مختص آن منطقه شده است که بهصورت پیشزمینۀ ذهنی برای طراحان درنظر گرفته شود. دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Research on Molded Pottery in
Zolfaabad Site of Farahanپژوهشی در سفالینه های قالب زدۀ محوطۀ زلف آباد فراهان119140370910.22084/nbsh.2020.14058.1612FAمحمدرضانعمتیاستادیار پژوهشکدۀ باستان شناسی پژوهشگاه میراث فرهنگی و گردشگری، تهران، ایراناسماعیلشراهیکارشناس ارشد اداره کل میراث فرهنگی، صنایع دستی و گردشگری استان مرکزی، اراک، ایران.علیصدرائیعضو هیأت علمی پژوهشکدۀ باستان شناسی پژوهشگاه میراث فرهنگی و گردشگری، تهران، ایران.Journal Article20170701A distinctive characteristic of the Ilkhanid pottery is the high diversity of ceramic vessels produced in various styles and techniques. While the pottery with stamped decorations is among the popular types in the period, it has received less scholarly attention than other contemporary types. Importance of this historical data led us to examine the related material from Zolfabad in Farahan. The merits of studying the decorations of this type lie in the links between the Islamic and pre-Islamic Iran and the appearance of symbols inspired by Islamic thought on ceramics as well as the integration of the pre-Muslim and Mongolian cultures in its decorations. The study focuses on the stamped pottery excavated at Zolfabad to redeem the lack of sufficient information. As a descriptive and analytical research, it builds on both excavations and library studies to answer questions like: What are the main reasons behind the attribution of the Zolfabad stamped assemblages to the Ilkhanid period and to the local pottery workshops? And, to what extend do their decorations show influences from other cultures? Based on the discovery of Ilkhanid coinage, pottery with black underdrawing (Qalam Meshki), and Sultanabad ware, the pottery type in question dates to the Ilkhanid period. And, pesence of ceramic tripods, plugs (stoppers), wasters, and deformed fragments attest to their local production. Besides Iranian archetypal patterns, a series of motifs inspired by the Chinese-Mongolian culture, say tails of lions resembling dragon, are found on the contemporary material.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Farahan, Zolfabad, Islamic Pottery, Stamped Patterns, Ilkhanid.
Introduction
The pottery of the 12<sup>th</sup> and 13<sup>th</sup> centuries AD display an unprecedented diversity in production techniques, decorations and prosperity (Tohidi 2003, 171), with many earlier patterns and techniques culminating in this period (Dimand 1977, 171). In fact, motifs and ornaments are a major aspect of the contemporary pottery art, and as various themes embellish exterior or interior surfaces in different techniques. A technique that came to the fore in the early centuries and particularly in the medieval Islamic period and combined Iranian and Islamic elements on the unglazed forms was the stamped pottery. Such vessels tend to have an exterior covered fully or in part with various floral and animal motifs and human figures as well as inscriptions. Excavations in 2009 and 2010 at Zolfabad of Farahan in the central Iranian plateau have produced in residential spaces stamped fragments that merit analysis because of their decorations. Here we set to study these fragments to partially redeem the existing lacuna.
<strong>Research Questions and Assumptions:</strong> This research will attempt to answer these questions: What are the main reasons behind the attribution of the stamped pottery of Zolfabad to the Ilkhanid period and to the local pottery workshops? And, to what extend do their decorations reflect impacts of other cultures?
<strong>Research Method: </strong>The method adopted a descriptive and analytical approach. Related data were gathered through library research from previous publications and were used as comparanda in analyzing the stamped pottery fragments excavated from Zolfabad.
Zolfabad Stamped Pottery
With an area of over 100 hectares, Zolfabad is a major Islamic site in the Farahan plain of Arak. The site is locally called the ruins or the subterranean city of Zolfabad (Nemati 2009).
The diversified decorations on the stamped pottery of Zolfabad attest to the continuation of the pre-Islamic motifs in the Islamic period and the integration of Iranian and Mongolian culture in the Ilkhanid period. Patterns include a variety of human figures, floral, animal and geometric motifs and inscriptions often used in combination or occasionally singly. Animal motifs were either applied singly or together with floral and geometric motifs and human figures on the vessels (Kiani 1998, 76). A description of the motifs recorded on the stamped pottery from Zolfabad is followed.
<strong>Lion: </strong>As one of the widely used motifs on the Islamic pottery, it carries the same meaning that it conveyed in the pre-Islamic times (Dadvar 2014, 10).
<strong>Fish: </strong>It is represented by two swirling fish. At Zolfabad it is rendered in the same manner that is seen on the Saljuq and Ilkhanid glazed pieces.
<strong>Sun Face: </strong>The sun assumes a paramount place in Iranian mythology. An earliest Iranian religion to attach special significance to the sun is the Mithraism. Mithra is an ancient Indo-Iranian deity, who is highly regarded in Avesta, and to whom is dedicated the tenth Yasht (Bahar 1996, 80). The motif occurs on the Ilkhanid pottery, including a fragment from Zulfabad, in the form of a human face.
<strong>Inscriptions: </strong>Inscriptions are among fashionable decorative elements on the stamped pottery of Zolfabad. The incomplete nature of the fragments render their inscribed contents unreadable, but drawing on the instances on the glazed and unglazed ceramics from the Saljuq and Ilkhanid sites, they probably include specimens. Coming from glazed and non-glazed pottery in the Seljuk and Ilkhanid period sites, they appear to include aphorisms, a repetition of a certain word, or a single letter. A few motifs classifiable as pseudo-inscriptions, are in Persian and Arabic, in Kufic and Naskh scripts.
<strong>Birds: </strong>Throughout the Islamic period, birds occur on pottery as painted or stamped patterns, implying various concepts. The tradition continued at Zolfabad on the stamped pottery in the underglaze technique.
<strong>Floral Motifs:</strong> In Iran, the earliest floral motifs are found on pottery, seals and stones. The Iranian world is laden with plant imagery (Hall, 2001: 286).
Khatai: They abound on the stamped pottery of Zolfabad, usually interspersed with geometric motifs. They tend to be four-, six- or eight-petalled flowers, and cypress (Figs. 24-29).
Arabesque: Other recurring ornaments on the stamped pottery of Zolfabad include isolated and repetitive tendrils framed by filler circles.
<strong>Geometric Motifs: </strong>Geometric motifs are among the most common and earliest patterns used on pottery. They were widely used in all pottery centers since the prehistory.
<strong>Moon: </strong>Symbols and geometrical marks on pottery sometimes denote natural phenomena. Of these, scattered rings and concentric circles with a corona around them to represent rain and fertility, are interpreted as symbols of the moon (Samadi 1997, 23). On the stamped pottery of Zolfabad, they occur as the symbols of moon both singly and associated with the sun.
Conclusions
Our findings suggest stamping as a technique used to ornament unglazed pottery at Zolfabad. The pottery type shows a variety of human, floral, geometric and animal motifs and inscriptions. Such pieces are deemed local products based on the excavated evidence such as clay molds, plugs (stoppers), tripods, deformed pieces and wasters. Also, discovery of Ilkhanid coins from the residential area of the site as well as ceramics like pottery with black underdrawing (Qalam Meshki), lusterware and Sultanabad ware argue indisputably for an Ilkhanid date for the stamped pieces. Remarkable about the stamped decorations is the lavish use of pre-Islamic symbols that prevailed particularly in Saljuq and Ilkhanid Iran. Though in the Islamic period many of pre-Islamic symbols assumed new concepts based on the Islamic thought, those recorded on the Zolzabad material show no indications of the domination of Islamic culture save a few arabesque and khatai (floral) designs. The same is true of the Chinese-Mongolian culture. While following the Mongolian conquest Chinese symbols began to occur on a large scale on Iranian ceramics, especially glazed pottery, they appear to have found far less favor in the stamped pottery of Zolfabad than Iranian symbols. In this period, some motifs of the eastern Mongols, like dragons that symbolized the emperor and human figures, emerged in Iranian art.از ویژگیهای منحصربهفرد سفالهای دورۀ ایلخانی تنوع در ساخت سفالها با تکنیکها و شیوههای مختلف سفالگری و تنوع در تزئین سفالهاست. سفال با تزئین قالبزده، یکی از گونههای سفالی رایج در دورۀ ایلخانی است که برخلاف سایر گونههای سفالی دیگر کمتر به آن توجه شده است. طی دو فصل کاوش در سالهای 1388و 1389 در محوطۀ تاریخی زلفآباد فراهان شواهدی از تولید سفال ازجمله جوشکوره، سفالهای تغییر شکل دادهشده، توپی کوره و سهپایههای سفالی بهدست آمد. در میان سفالینهها و قطعات سفالی، نمونههایی از قالب و سفالهای قالبزده دورۀ ایلخانی وجود دارد که با نقوش مختلف حیوانی، کتیبه و گیاهی تزئین شدهاند. اهمیت این دادۀ تاریخی سبب شد تا به بررسی و مطالعۀ سفالهای قالبزدۀ مکشوف از این محوطه بپردازیم. مطالعۀ تزئینات این گونۀ سفالی از حیث پیوند فرهنگ ایران دوران اسلامی با ایران پیش از اسلام و رهیافت نمادها و نشانههایی برگرفته از تفکر اسلامی برروی سفال بهعلاوه تلفیق فرهنگ ایرانی پیش از اسلام-مغولی در تزئین، حائز اهمیت است. پژوهش حاضر براساس مطالعۀ سفالهای قالبزدۀ بهدست آمده از کاوشهای محوطۀ تاریخی زلفآباد فراهان گذارده شده است تا از اینطریق بتوان عدم اطلاعات کافی درخصوص این نوع سفال را تاحدودی جبران کرد. این پژوهش بـه روش توصـیفی-تحلیلی و با تکیهبر کاوشهای میدانی و مطالعات کتابخانهای جهت پاسخ به پرسشهایی همچون، مهمترین دلایل اطلاق سفالهای قالبزدۀ زلفآباد به دورۀ ایلخانی و بومی بودن آنها چیست؟ و میزان تأثیرپذیری تزئینات این نوع سفالها از فرهنگهای مختلف تا چه اندازهای بوده است؟ انجام شده است. براساس کشف سکههای مربوط به دورۀ ایلخانی، سفالهای قلممشکی و سفال نوع سلطانآباد، این گونۀ سفالی متعلق به دورۀ ایلخانی است. وجود سهپایههای سفالی، توپیهای کوره، جوشکوره و قطعات سفالهای تغییر شکل داده شده، نشان از تولید سفال در محل و بومی بودن سفالها دارد؛ هرچند الگوهای کهن ایرانی برروی اینگونۀ سفالی رایج بوده، ولی در این دوره برخی از تزئینات همچون دُم شیر بهشکل اژدها متؤثر از فرهنگ چینی-مغولی است.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Survey of the Evolution of Royal Monuments Inscription from the Late Ilkhani to Early Safavid Period in the Paintings of Three Prominent Manuscripts of Ferdowsi’s Shahnamehسیر تحول کتیبه نگاری در بناهای سلطنتی از اواخر دورۀ ایلخانی تا اوایل صفوی براساس نگاره های سه نسخۀ شاخص شاهنامۀ فردوسی141162371010.22084/nbsh.2019.18060.1872FAمریمصالحی کیادانش آموختۀ کارشناسی ارشد باستان شناسی اسلامی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه شهرکرد، شهرکرد، ایران.میتراشاطریاستادیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه شهرکرد، شهرکرد، ایران0000-0001-7210-7171Journal Article20181230Since the creation of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, this work has attracted the attention of kings and Authorities and in different periods, by their command, the valuable manuscripts of that, have been made by the most prominent artists of every period. In the history of Iranian painting, three manuscripts of the Shahnameh have special significance: The Great Mongol Shahnameh (Demot) related to the late Ilkhani era, Baysonghor Shahnameh belonging to the Timurid period and Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp (Houghton) related to the early Safavid period. Regarding the subject of the stories, a number of pictures of all three manuscripts have images of royal buildings, that the painters have made great efforts and precision in accurately drawing structure of their buildings and decorations, especially tiles. The buildings have inscriptions that each reminds the inscriptions of their periods. The present research tries to answer these questions: What are the features of the inscriptions depicted in each of the three manuscripts, in terms of the type and color of the line, location, color and Background decorations? What changes have occurred in the course of a period to the next? Regarding the importance of images in archaeological research, the main purpose of the present research is survey of the evolution and comparison of the Inscription of royal monuments from the late Ilkhani to early Safavids based on the images of three manuscripts of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh (the great Mongol Shahnameh, Baysonghor Shahnameh and Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp). The Information is collected in the library and field method and the research method is descriptive- comparative and analytical. The findings of the research show that the building’s Inscription During the late Ilkhani to the early Safavid period is more sophisticated and more diverse in terms of script, colors and decorative motifs. Considering that there are no significant examples of the ceremonial and royal monuments of the late Ilkhani to the early Safavid period, investigating the images of these three manuscripts can provide researchers with useful information about the design, color and location of the inscriptions.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Painting, Inscription, Great Mongol Shahnameh, Baysonghri Shahnameh, Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp.
Introduction
With the advent of Islam and given the considerations regarding the use of human and animal motifs, the script became more important than ever and it became a good alternative to it. The script was not only one of the main factors in the transmission of political and religious messages in buildings, but also has an aesthetic function. Perhaps this is why it is possible to find less of Islamic building that is lacking in inscription. Paintings are the results of the visual experiences of painters and reflect the architectural features of each period. Many of the magnificent and luxurious buildings have been destroyed over time, and no information is available from them except the low and often vague descriptions that some historians and tourists have mentioned in their works. The present research tries to emphasize that the researchers, in their study of the arts and architecture of various periods based on the images, can overcome the scarcity or lack of resources, and the images of these manuscripts, in addition to the artistic value, in identifying the structure and decorations of the royal monuments that have been destroyed over time, as reliable source, they are worthy of attention. In the history of Iranian painting, three manuscripts of Shahnameh are important: the Great Mongol Shahnameh (Demot) from the late Ilkhani era, Baysonghor Shahnameh belonging to the Timurid period and the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp (Houghton) related to the early Safavid period. A number of pictures of all three manuscripts have pictures of royal buildings, and Painters have worked hard on designing their structures and decorations, especially tiles. The main purpose of this research is survey of the evolution and comparison of the Inscription of royal monuments from the late Ilkhani to early Safavids based on the pictures of these three manuscripts of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. The present research seeks to answer these questions: What are the features of the inscriptions depicted in all three manuscripts in terms of the type and color of the script, location, color and background decorations? And what developments in the inscriptions of buildings have come from a period to the next? So far, in order to investigate the evolution of the medieval or later Islamic inscriptions, based on the existing images of these centuries, no research has been done; therefore, this research can be used to prove the importance of images in the study of architecture and decorations of buildings of each period.
Identified Traces
The great Mongol Shahnameh belongs to the late Ilkhani era. In a number of paintings of this Manuscript, pictures of ceremonial and palatial buildings are depicted that have a simple structure and limited levels of them are decorated with azure tile with plant, geometric and Inscription motifs. Inscriptions of monuments have been written with white and golden Kufic script on the azure background without decoration, Installed in the front of the buildings and entrances. Baysonghori Shahnameh is the masterpiece of the Herat School painting. Of the 22 images of this Manuscript, in 6 images depict royal monuments with palace and castle functions, and a wide range of these buildings are decorated with azure tile. The main inscriptions of the buildings that have political and religious content, have been written with white Tholth script on the azure background and embellished with golden arabesque motifs and installed in the front of the buildings, the edges of the walls and the forehead of the porch. The Kufic inscriptions cover fewer levels and have benedictory content, are installed at the front of the entrance and have been written with white color on azure background covered with golden arabesque motifs. Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp is the masterpiece of the Safavid Tabriz School. About in one fifth of the paintings of this Manuscript, the buildings that often palaces, and in some cases castles, are depicted. The design of the inscriptions of the buildings has a considerable variation.The main inscriptions have been written with white and golden tholth script, Installed in the front of the porches and the entrances and edges of the fortress walls. Tholth inscriptions have simple background and sometimes are decorated with arabesque and khataei motifs. One of the important features of the inscriptions of the monuments of this manuscript is the use of Persian language and Nastaliq script. These inscriptions have fewer levels and are white and golden, and are used in the foreheads of the porches and entrances and inside the porches.
Conclusion
By examining the inscriptions on the paintings in these three manuscripts, it can be said that the simple appearance of the Kofic inscriptions in the monuments of the Ilkhani era during the Timurid period become more decorative and beautiful. The application of golden arabesque designs is a step to make the azure background look better and keep them from monotonous. On the other hand, the Kofic inscriptions, which were considered the main inscriptions of the royal monuments during the Mongol period, have been replaced by Tholth inscriptions in the Timurid period. The original inscription of the early Safavid royal monuments, as in the previous period, has been written white and it is often installed on front of the porch. The obsolete Kofic inscriptions, the use of inscriptions with Persian text and the Nastaliq line, the use of decorative motifs in the background of inscriptions and the use of inscriptions in front of the porch are new features that used in the inscriptions of the early Safavid royal monuments. Therefore, the inscriptions of the monuments from the period of the Ilkhani to the early Safavid era have become more refined in terms of the type of pen, color and background decorations. Due to the destruction of many ceremonial and royal monuments of these three periods, the images of these three manuscripts of the Shahnameh, as valuable documentary evidence, reveal the evolution of inscriptions of the royal monuments from the late Ilkhani to the early Safavid period.از زمان آفرینش شاهنامۀ فردوسی این اثر مورد توجه پادشاهان و صاحبمنصبان بوده و در ادوار مختلف، به فرمان آنها، نسخ نفیسی از آن بهدست برجستهترین هنرمندان هر عصر ساخته شده است. در تاریخ نگارگری ایران، سه نسخۀ شاهنامه اهمیت ویژهای دارند؛ شاهنامۀ بزرگ مغول (دموت) مربوط به اواخر دورۀ ایلخانی، شاهنامۀ بایسنقری متعلق به دورۀ تیموری و شاهنامۀ شاه طهماسبی (هوتون) مربوط به اوایل دورۀ صفوی. به فراخور موضوع داستانها، شماری از نگارههای هر سه نسخه، دارای تصاویری از ابنیۀ سلطنتی هستند و نگارگران در ترسیم هر چه بهتر بناها و تزئینات آنها بهویژه کاشیکاری، تلاش و دقت بسیار کردهاند. بناها دارای کتیبههایی هستند که هر یک سیمای کتیبههای ساخته شده در دورههای خود را بهخاطر میآورند. پژوهش حاضر میکوشد به این پرسشها پاسخ دهد که، کتیبهنگاری در هر یک از سه نسخه به تفکیک، با چه شاخصههای متفاوت بصری ترسیم شده و این ویژگیها در نوع و رنگ خط، محل قرارگیری، رنگ و تزئینات زمینه و مضامین، چگونه نمود یافته است؟ و در گذر از یک دوره به دورۀ بعد چه تحولاتی در آنها پدید آمده است؟ با توجه به اهمیت نگارهها در پژوهشهای باستانشناسی، هدف اصلی پژوهش حاضر، بررسی سیر تحولی و مقایسۀ کتیبهنگاری بناهای سلطنتی از اواخر دورۀ ایلخانی تا اوایل صفوی برمبنای نگارههای سه نسخۀ شاهنامۀ فردوسی (شاهنامۀ بزرگ مغول، شاهنامۀ بایسنقری و شاهنامۀ طهماسبی) است. اطلاعات به شیوۀ کتابخانهای گردآوری شده و روش تحقیق، توصیفی-تحلیلی و تطبیقی است. کتیبههای بناها، در دورۀ مغول با خط کوفی و در دورۀ تیموری با خطوط کوفی و ثلث، اغلب مضامین سیاسی و مذهبی دارند؛ و در دورۀ صفوی، کتیبههای ثلث و نستعلیق مضامین دعایی، اخلاقی و عرفانی را تداعی میکنند. در دورۀ تیموری از نقوش اسلیمی و در دورۀ صفوی از نقوش اسلیمی و ختایی، برای تزئین زمینۀ کتیبهها استفاده شده است.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Correspondence Between the Content of the Cornice with Its Placement in Islamic Architecture (Comparative Study of Khan School, and the Mosques of Moshir-ol-Molk and Nasir-ol-Molk of Shiraz)همخوانی محتوای کتیبه با محل قرارگیری آن در معماری اسلامی (مقایسۀ تطبیقی مدرسۀ خان، مساجد مشیرالملک و نصیرالملک شیراز)163188371110.22084/nbsh.2020.18228.1884FAهانیزارعیعضو هیأت علمی گروه مرمت بناهای تاریخی، دانشگاه صنعتی جندی شاپور دزفول، دزفول، ایرانمهدیرازانیاستادیار گروه مرمت و باستان سنجی، دانشکدۀ هنرهای کاربردی، دانشگاه هنر اسلامی تبریز، تبریز، ایران.0000-0003-2704-4073Journal Article20190116In Islamic period, cornice-based arrays of architecture, irrespective of the artistic and aesthetic aspects, have been full of spiritual and mystical concepts in the form of religious rituals and prayers of Allah. The purpose of present study is recognizing the relationship between architectural atmosphere and the concepts of cornices. This is done so to identify the reasons of selecting and using signs that can be found on cornices and the place of use. Khan school and the mosques of Moshir-ol-Molk and Nasir-ol-molk of Shiraz dated back to Safavi and Qajar period, have interesting designs from the artistic and aesthetic point of view and all these three structures have had educational-religious application. Therefore, in order to build a relationship between themes of cornices, their shapes and architectural atmosphere were investigated, and the relationship between the patterns themes of cornices and the architecture of the structures were studied. In the process of this study, field survey was used to achieve desired goals of investigating and reading the texts and themes of the cornices of constructions. Moreover, analytical-descriptive method was used to introduce, categorize and recognize their integrated relationship. The results of this study indicate that the orientation of the cornices are in the way that they show the presence of some verses with the themes of hymns and prayers, morning, God, paradise, human and pandemonium, name of the Imams, traditions about their application and their installation atmosphere and predicative cornices and construction date of these buildings. The eye catching points of the signs installation were the Koranic verse with the themes of morning, light and sun in the Eastern and Western sides changed in the times of sunrise and sunset. So we can say there is a conceptual relationship between the themes of the cornices in different parts of the building and their creator had been aware of its selection and installation.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Khan School of Shiraz, Nasir-ol-Molk Mosque, Moshir-ol-Molk Mosque, Accommodation of the Cornice, Theme and Content.
Introduction
One of the most important features of religious architecture, such as mosques, is connections and combinations of cornice design with Qoran verses. The place of cornices and paying attention to select its themes and texts have been very significant in conveying these pre-thought concepts. This issue has been more visible in religious constructions such as mosques and schools of Shiraz especially in Khan School and Nasir-ol-molk and Moshir-ol-Molk mosques while this issue has not been investigated in these constructions yet. This is why the present study tries to investigate the meaningful and semantic relationship of cornice and architecture somatic in selecting themes of the verses and the location of cornices in the buildings by using field studies and reading the cornices of the building and receiving their time relationship of their construction by descriptive analysis. The research questions of the present study contain two fundamental issues that this study tries to answer:
- The cornices of Khan School, Nasir-ol-molk and Moshir-ol-Molk mosques contain what kind of conceptual and thematic issues?
- What is the relationship between the theme of the cornices of Khan School, Nasir-ol-molk and Moshir-ol-Molk mosques with architectural atmosphere?
The first hypothesis: Based on the research questions, it seems that the themes of the verses hymns and prayers of prophet and Imams, light, morning and night, paradise, man and resurrection, names of Imams, prayers, hadiths and inscriptions are related to building construction and there is an in common pattern of the themes for this kind of structures. This is because of the repetition of some themes in these constructions. The second hypotheses can be mentioned in the way that there is a chronological and conceptual relationship between building and selecting a text and theme of the cornices of the different parts with the building and the placement of architectural elements such as verandas and buddies in Khan school with Nasir-ol-Molk and Moshir-ol-Molk mosques and the artist deliberately had chosen and installed these verses and prays in pre-determined places based on their revelation and its meaning. Moreover, the builder has considered the role of the Sun’s motion and the theme of light in adjusting text and the placement of some cornices. Since the main topic of this study is about reading concepts of the cornices and the design of tiling of Khan school with Nasir-ol-Molk and Moshir-ol-Molk mosques, descriptive, historical and analytic method was used to achieve exact and enough information in gathering data of this study based on available documents.
The Results of the Research
Most of the repaired cornices of Khan School as the Nasir-ol-Molk and Moshir-ol-Molk mosques are related to Qajar period and governorship of Naser al-Din Shah. In the entrance of these structures, predicative cornices by the subject of building a construct and the verse of Kosar, Tohid, Nasr and Hamd which are representative of praying profit, God and Imam Ali who are representative of three fundamental Shias’ principles, monotheism- prophecy and leadership are installed. Besides there are some cornices of praising Imam Ali that shows the builder’s belief and devotion by writing prays and his name on the body of all three buildings. Based on the investigations of cornices of Khan school we can say that the themes of these cornices contain Qoranic verses, Hadiths of Mohammad Profit, some verses of Imam Ali prayer poem, God’s features, prays and greeting to God and holly Mohammad, name of the architect, calligrapher and also the person who repaired the building (Naser al-Din Shah). Orientation of the cornices is based on their religious and spiritual themes. On the building of Khan School there are some verses with the theme of morning, God, paradise human and pandemonium and they are changing at the same time of sunset and sunrise in the Eastern and western sides. Besides, progression process of human is obvious in this orientation of the cornices. Furthermore, educational-devotional application of these three buildings has increased the conceptual relationship of the cornices in the sides of these buildings. In Moshir-ol-Molk mosque we can see the cornices of Shams verse on the Northern and light side of the building and 35th verse of Noor verse on the Eastern side. In Nasir-ol-Molk mosque the verses of Shams verse and its refulgence is seen on the Eastern side of the building which the sun raises there also verses of Aa’la verse with the theme of praying God and the creation of plants by God is written on the Western side which faced to the Sun in the morning.
Conclusion
Investigating the internal cornices of these three above-mentioned buildings indicates that in all three buildings there are some cornices with the theme of sun, light, morning, resurrection and night based on the orientation of the sun from the east to the west. This is why the verse of Noor in Qoran, Zoha, Fajr, Lail and Ghiyamat are written on the sides faced to the sunrise i.e. western side and the side which is back to the sunrise and faced to the sunset i.e. eastern side. This proves that their creator was aware and had knowledge about the verses and they are chosen based on their deduced meaning. Moreover, it shows that the role of clergymen has been very important in building these structures. By this, we can say that there are some the conceptual relationship between selecting a text and the theme of the cornices in different parts of the building about studying their body, with the aim of placing the architectural elements such as verandas, buildings and etc. and their creator deliberately had chosen and installed the signs of this prays in pre-determined places based on their roots and concepts. در دوران اسلامی، آرایههای مبتنیبر کتیبه در سطوح معماری، فارغ از مسائل هنری و زیباشناختی، مملو از مفاهیم معنوی و عرفانی در قالب شعائرالله و ادعیۀ مذهبی هستند. هدف پژوهش حاضر، شناخت ارتباط فضای معماری و مفاهیم کتیبهها بهمنظور یافتن دلایلی منطقی برای چرایی انتخاب و استفاده از آیات موجود در کتیبهها نسبت به محل استفاده از آنها است. «مدرسۀ خان» و مساجد «مشیرالملک» و «نصیرالملک» شیراز مربوط به دورۀ صفوی و قاجار، دارای تزئیناتِ معماری جالبتوجه از منظر هنری و زیباییشناسی هستند و هر سه بنا کاربری آموزشی-دینی دارند؛ از اینرو، بهمنظور تبیین ارتباط میان مضامین کتیبهها و شکل و فضای معماری مورد بررسی قرار گرفتهاند تا بر ایناساس بتوان ارتباط موجود میان مضامین کتیبهها با کالبد معماری بنا را مورد مطالعه قرار داد. مهمترین پرسشهای پژوهش عبارتنداز: 1. کتیبههای موجود در مدرسۀ خان، مسجد مشیرالملک و نصیرالملک از لحاظ مفهومی و موضوعی چه مواردی را شامل میشوند؟ 2. ارتباط میان مضامین کتیبههای مدرسۀ خان، مسجد نصیرالملک و مشیرالملک با فضای معماری چیست؟ در فرآیند پژوهش، بهمنظور دستیابی به اهداف مورد نظر از بررسیهای میدانی برای مستندسازی و خوانش متون و مضمون کتیبههای موجود در بناها و از روش توصیفی-تحلیلی برای معرفی، دستهبندی و یافتن ارتباطهای تطبیقی آنها استفاده شده است. نتایج حاصل از این پژوهش نشان میدهند که چرخش کتیبهها با توجه به مضامین مذهبی و معنوی، بهصورتی است که در بدنههای بنا آیاتی در: مضامین، تسبیح و نیایش، صبح، خداوند، بهشت، انسان و قیامت، اسامی امامان، احادیث مرتبط با کاربری و فضای نصب آن و کتیبههای خبری و ساخت بنا وجود دارد. از نکات قابلتوجه نصب آیات سورههای با مضمون: صبح، نور و خورشید در بدنههای شرقی و غربی است؛ بنابراین میتوان گفت ارتباط مفهومی بین مضمون کتیبه در بخشهای مختلف با کالبد در بناهای مورد مطالعه وجود دارد و هنرمند با آگاهی دست به انتخاب و نصب آن زده است.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Typology of Historical Houses
in the Old Part of Ardabilگونه شناسی خانههای تاریخی در بافت قدیم شهر اردبیل189214371210.22084/nbsh.2020.21973.2162FAسید مهدیحسینی نیادانشجوی دکتری باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران.کریمحاجی زاده باستانیدانشیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران.حبیبشهبازی شیراناستادیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران.رضارضالودانشیار گروه باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران.nullشاهرخشیدایی سولادانش آموختۀ باستان شناسی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران.Journal Article20200628The present study intends to introduce the historical houses in Ardabil and analyze the typology, cultural, and social attitudes towards their construction. The research method is historical-analytical and data collection is based on library and field studies. The present study seeks to answer the following questions: How many types are the houses? What features have influenced the overall structure of the houses in this area? The results of the research on the classification of historical houses are as follows: The characteristics of the plan and shape of the courtyard, the orientation of the building and the main hall, the characteristics of the house entrances and how to enter different parts of the building, the importance of open parts and light ports and their size ratio, materials and structures they used. Typologically, they are divided into four categories: Qajar period with an introverted form, The first type of typology: houses with a cross-shaped courtyard design with a compact and nested texture, the second type: houses with porch design, with proportionality of a Large opening, the third type: multi-part houses with several courtyards with main view. Fourth type: In the period of first Pahlavi with form of extroversion, buildings whose space density is on one side above the level of the courtyard; emphasizing the importance of the exterior of the building. The results of this study also show that cultural and social patterns such as; paying attention to the principle of privacy in different parts of the building, the separation of building spaces on a large scale into public, private and crew space, and on a small scale, with lavish or simple decorations, shows the social ranking of homeowners. In the houses of the Pahlavi period, there were major changes in cultural and social patterns. Imitation of the West in cases such as the removal of the inner courtyard and the use of interior stairs can be clearly seen of the house.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Ardabil, Historical Houses, Qajar Period, First Pahlavi Period, Typology of Houses.
Introduction
Houses are generally of special importance in the study of the historical developments of architecture and urban context due to their high frequency. In addition to their historical value, these buildings reflect the lifestyle of the people, the social and cultural perspective, as well as the attention to the region’s climate on their construction. The ancient texture of Ardabil, considering its several hundred years of history in the field of Islamic urban planning, is one of the most important cases in this field. One of the main elements of the old texture of this city are historical houses, which unfortunately few of them remain in this city and all of them belong to the later centuries and generally include the Qajar and Pahlavi periods. In this study, in order to protect the architectural identity of Ardabil, the typology of different types of houses and their physical and decorative features have been considered and to achieve this goal, attempted to identify the characteristics of historical houses in the form of physical and decorative typology. Limited buildings from the Pahlavi period remain, mostly including educational and government buildings. This may be due to the politics of the first Pahlavi period, in which government buildings were built throughout the country with a more durable quality than houses. Regarding the traditional houses of this city, it should be said that some of these buildings have already been repaired and renovated, and by changing their use, total destruction has been prevented, and the rest of the buildings have either been destroyed or are being demolished. Studies show that limited studies have been done on these houses and there is no comprehensive knowledge about them, while with proper planning and restoration of such buildings, we can see their growth and development, especially in the field of tourism. It was cultural.
<strong>Objectives and necessity of research:</strong> One of the main elements left from the ancient fabric of Ardabil is historical houses. Due to the way of life and the growth of urbanization in recent years, many of these buildings have been destroyed or are in danger of being destroyed. Due to this and in order to protect the architectural identity of the city, the introduction and typology of historical houses in Ardabil and the physical elements and cultural and social attitudes on their construction is necessary and to achieve this goal, efforts have been made. Recognition of the characteristics of the historical houses of the city should be done in the form of physical and decorative typology.
<strong>Research Questions: </strong>The questions of this research are as follows: 1-How many types are the houses? 2- What features have influenced the overall structure of the houses in this area
Discuss
The typology of Ardabil houses is based on geographical, physical factors and cultural and social patterns. The geographical direction of the building is southeast- northwest, it means the houses are in contrary to the main prevailing wind of the city. Also, the angle of the main hall is examined from 20 houses. The construction of porches in houses was common until the end of the Qajar period. In the houses of the early Qajar period, this space was a door with a medium or small scale, usually with two doors with two percussions. In the late Qajar period, by the end of the Pahlavi period, the entrances head of houses became simple. This element is very important in the surveyed houses, as most of the surveyed houses have stairs both inside and outside the house; In the buildings of the Pahlavi period, stairs were built at the direct entrance to the ground floor and the connection to the upper floor is from the same middle part of the building. Due to the climatic characteristics of Ardabil city, the ratio of opening levels in the main facades, except in some houses, has not been more than 50%, and most of the surveyed houses are between 25% and 40%. Brickwork decorations in the form of geometric knots, masonry with plaster, sash windows, paintings in various designs of plant, human, animal, mirror work were the dominant decorations. Cultural and social patterns such as; The principle of privacy in homes is well observed. In the Pahlavi period, the inner and outer domains were combined and after that the houses moved away from the principle of privacy (Mohammad Hosseini et al., 1398: 40). In terms of social ranking, aristocratic houses usually have several parts in the form of exterior and interior space and service space. On a small scale, the middle and ordinary class houses were simple interior walls with no decoration, but in the aristocratic houses there were elaborate decorations (Ibid., 1398: 41 and 40).
Conclusion
Typologically, they are divided into four categories: Qajar period with an introverted form, The first type of typology: houses with a cross-shaped courtyard design with a compact and nested texture, the second type: houses with porch design, with proportionality of a Large opening, the third type: multi-part houses with several courtyards with main view. Fourth type: In the period of first Pahlavi with form of extroversion, buildings whose space density is on one side above the level of the courtyard; emphasizing the importance of the exterior of the building. The results of this study also show that cultural and social patterns such as; paying attention to the principle of privacy in different parts of the building, the separation of building spaces on a large scale into public, private and crew space, and on a small scale, with lavish or simple decorations, shows the social ranking of homeowners. In the houses of the Pahlavi period, there were major changes in cultural and social patterns. Imitation of the West in cases such as the removal of the inner courtyard and the use of interior stairs can be clearly seen of the house.یکی از عناصر اصلی باقیمانده از بافت کهن شهر اردبیل، خانههای تاریخی است. با توجه به شیوۀ زندگی و رشد شهرنشینی در طی سالیان اخیر، بسیاری از این بناها تخریب و یا در معرض نابودی قرار گرفتهاند. با توجه به این امر، معرفی و گونهشناسی خانههای تاریخی شهر اردبیل و عناصر کالبدی و نگرشهای فرهنگی و اجتماعی بر ساخت آنها ضروری است. روش تحقیق بهصورت تاریخی-تحلیلی بوده و گردآوری اطلاعات برپایۀ مطالعات کتابخانهای و میدانی است. پژوهش حاضر بهدنبال پاسخگویی به این پرسشهاست؛ از نظر کالبدی خانههای این شهر را به چند گونه میتوان تقسیم کرد؟ چه ویژگیهایی بر ساختار کلّی آنها تأثیرگذار بودهاند؟ نتایج پژوهش حاضر دستهبندی خانههای تاریخی شهر براساس ویژگیهای پلان و شکل حیاط، جهتگیری بنا و تالار اصلی، مشخصات سردر خانهها و نحوۀ ورود به فضاهای مختلف بنا، اهمیت بازشوها و نسبت اندازۀ آنها، مصالح و سازۀ و تزئینات بهکار رفته در آنها است. بر ایناساس میتوان آنها را از لحاظ گونهشناسی به چهار دسته تقسیمبندی کرد: دورۀ قاجار با فرم درونگرایی، شامل گونۀ اول: خانههایی با طرح حیاط صلیبیشکل با بافت فشرده و تودرتو، گونۀ دوم: خانههای چند قسمتی با چند حیاط و یا نمای اصلی، در دو مورد در کنار فضاهای تجاری. گونۀ سوم: خانههایی با طرح ایواندار با داشتن تناسب بازشوی بزرگ. گونۀ چهارم: در دورۀ پهلوی اول با فرم برونگرایی، بناهایی با استقرار تودۀ حجمی در یک سمت بالاتر از سطح حیاط، با تأکیدبر اهمیت به نمای بیرونی بنا؛ همچنین الگوهای فرهنگی و اجتماعی مانند: توجه بر رعایت اصل محرمیت در قسمتهای مختلف بنا، تفکیک فضاهای ساختمانی در مقیاس عظیم با دارا بودن فضای عمومی، خصوصی و خدمه و در مقیاس کوچکتر، بهصورت بناهایی با آذینبندی زیاد و یا ساده نشان از رتبهبندی اجتماعی صاحبخانهها میرساند. در خانههای دورۀ پهلوی در الگوهای فرهنگی و اجتماعی تغییرات عمدهای بهوجود آمد، الگوبرداری از معماری غربی؛ در مواردی چون: حذف حیاط اندرونی، توجه به تزئینات بیرونی بنا و استفاده از پلههای داخلی بهصورت آشکار و برروی محور میانی خانه قابلمشاهده است.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Study of Metallic Ornaments Installed on the Tabriz Seyyed Hamzeh Mausoleum
(By Emphasis of Qajar Era Ornaments)مطالعۀ آرایه های فلزی نصب شده بر درب بقعۀ سیدحمزۀ تبریز (با تأکید به آرایه های دورۀ قاجار)215232371310.22084/nbsh.2019.18076.1873FAاکرممحمدی زادهدکترای تاریخ تطبیقی-تحلیلی هنر اسلامی، دانشکدۀ هنر، دانشگاه شاهد، تهران، ایران.0000-0001-9847-3794محسنمراثیاستادیار گروه پژوهش هنر، دانشکدۀ هنر دانشگاه شاهد، تهران، ایران0000-0001-5107-2811Journal Article20190101Imamzadegan is one of the most important Shrine to the Iranian people who are always revered. In each region, due to the existence of a specific climate and a particular artistic boom, according to religious beliefs in the same area, the construction of the Imamzadeghans is different from the arts. One of these Imamzadeh, Seyyed Hamzeh is in the city of Tabriz. On one of the interior doors of this building there are various decorations including icons, hands, and inscriptions of prayers verses and phrases. The purpose of this research is to identify the types and characteristics of contemporary Azerbaijan metalworking. Accordingly, and considering the prohibition of illustration and iconography in the sacred places, the present study intends to investigate the motifs of metal works and the reasons for installing these Icons on the door of this place. The main questions of this research are: What are the features of the metalwork installed on the door of Imamzadeh Seyyed Hamzeh mausoleum? Given the prohibition of illustration, especially in a religious place, what were the reasons for installing these metal works on the door of the Imamzadeh mausoleum? A descriptive-analytic approach has been used to answer these questions. The information and data required for this research were collected through field observation of metal ornaments on the door and library method and the method of data analysis is subject to qualitative research. The results show that these objects are made of worthless metals and influenced by Qajar folk art. The importance and place of this place in popular belief, the cause of the installation of these objects on the door of Imamzadeh and has been a kind of tool for making Muslim vow.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Imamzadeh Seyyed Hamzeh Mausoleum, Tabriz, Metal Decorations, Icon, Folk Art.
Introduction
Religious places, in addition to performing worship, such as religious ceremonies, include elements and beliefs that are commonplace and even hidden in the identity and cultural layers of society. The artistic decorations of these buildings can convey the concepts and worldview of their community.
The beliefs of the people have made the Imamzadegan become a holy place and a place for the presence of the needy people. In the geographical range of Iran, in every city, there are domes and minarets that indicate the burial of the children and relatives of the infallible Imams. The expansion of the Mausoleum of the Imamzadegan in the geographical area of the Iranian land has created artistic expressions consistent with the cultural identity and popular belief of the area. One of the Mausoleum belongs to Imamzadeh Seyyed Hamzeh in Tabriz. This place has various plastering, mirroring, wall painting as well as metal decoration on the interior door of the Mausoleum. One group of these lattice ornaments belongs to the Safavid period and the other to the Qajar period. The purpose of this study was to investigate the reasons for the installation of these works on the door of Imamzadeh Mausoleum, with the aim of introducing metal ornaments, especially the Qajar period arrays. The purpose of the research is to identify the types and characteristics of Azerbaijan metalworking in contemporary times. Accordingly, the main questions of this study are: What are the features of the metal works installed on the door of the Mausoleum of Sayyed Hamzah? Given the prohibition of illustration, especially in religious places, what were the reasons for installing these metal works on the door of Imamzadeh’s Mausoleum? Studying these works can lead to an understanding of some of the contemporary art of metalworking in Azerbaijan.
This research is descriptive and analytical and the information in this field study is gathered by visiting the monument and observing the interior door and taking photographs of the metal arrays installed on the door as well as the library method. The target population in this study is metal decorations related to the Qajar period installed on the door of Imamzadeh Seyyed Hamzeh’s Mausoleum, including Icons, Hands, and inscriptions. In addition to the Qajar-era metal Ornaments, lattice steel inscriptions from the Safavid era were also installed on the door so Samples were selected by purposeful sampling and qualitative data analysis.
Identified Traces
Seyyed Hamzeh was highly respected during the Ilkhanid period, and after his death the Mausoleum has been respected. There are two doors in this Mausoleum with metal ornamentation on it. The inscriptions related to the Safavid period and the rest of the ornamentation date back to the Qajar period. These decorations resemble the mosque of Saheb al-Amr, including Icons, hands and inscriptions. The history of these Icons can be traced back to Iranian art history and equated it with the sun’s motif. In the Islamic era, this role can be traced back to the role of the sun lady. The peak of this figure is related to the Qajar period which is depicted alone or in conjunction with the figure of the Lion and it can be related to the beliefs of the Shiite religion in this period. The role of the hand is also known as the symbol of the achievement of Holiness Abul Fazl. Of course, this sign also includes other meanings, such as the Five Al-Aba’a, which includes the Prophet and Fatima and her Husband and children. Writings are another set of motifs that’s with the Nastaliq Script and simple Script Without aesthetics and depending on the subject of the text, they appear in Arabic or Persian. The sanctity that people on this place they have installed these works on the door for their own needs. Health, longevity, or access to the opposite sex may be the motivation for installing these objects. These works can be considered in the category of Folk art, so the function of folk art here is to objectify the mental forms, beliefs and thoughts of different social classes. For this reason, in addition to the aesthetic enjoyment of art it is a purposeful function to understand the fundamentals of traditional community culture.
Conclusion
On the porch of the entrance to the shrine of Sayyed Hamzah are silver, low grade, tin and brass metal objects. These objects include Icons, Hands, Tablets and Inscriptions. The history of these Icons can be traced back to the role of the sun in Iranian art. The role of the sun with the nature of light and heat that gives life to all beings and promises life and hope to life can be linked to the role of these faces. On the other hand, the sun alone or with the lion was one of the most popular Qajar motifs, a role that was interwoven with Shiite beliefs.
These objects, with their simple features and style, represent popular art, thereby reflecting layers of historical, social, and religious identity within the Qajar community. The people of Tabriz made their pilgrimage to their shrine. Therefore, these works can be regarded as a Talisman that is installed as a vow or as a sign on the door of this place. Phrases such as “Ya Hossein Mazloom” and “Ya Abbas Dakhilam” with simple and elementary Script on these works indicate the appeal of the poor and middle class to the Imams.بقاع متبرکۀ امامزادگان، یکی از مهمترین زیارتگاهها در نزد مردم ایران است که همواره مورد تعظیم و تکریم قرار میگیرند. وجود مرقد مطهر امام هشتم شیعیان حضرت امام رضا؟ع؟ در شهر مشهد و ارادت قلبی ایرانیان به علویان از ابتدای تاریخ اسلام باعث مهاجرت آنان به ایران و درنتیجه پراکندگی بقاع متبرکه در پهنۀ جغرافیایی این سرزمین شده است. در هر منطقه و با توجه به ویژگیهای اقلیمی و نیز رونق انواع هنرها و توجه به اعتقادات و آئینهای مذهبی همان منطقه، بنای داخلی مقابر امامزادگان بهصورتهای مختلف آراستهشده و جلوهگاه هنرهای گوناگون بوده است. یکی از این زیارتگاهها، بقعۀ «سید حمزه» در شهر تبریز است. برروی درب داخلی این بنا تزئینات فلزی مختلفی مشتملبر صورتک، پنجه و کتیبههایی از آیات و عبارات دعایی نصبشده است. هدف از انجام این پژوهش، شناسایی انواع و ویژگیهای هنر فلزکاری آذربایجان در دوران معاصر است. بر ایناساس و با توجه به منع تصویرگری و شمایلسازی در اماکن مقدس، پژوهش حاضر قصد دارد ضمن بررسی نقوش آثار فلزی، علت نصب این صورتکها برروی درب این مکان را بررسی کند. پرسشهای اصلی این پژوهش عبارتنداز: آثار فلزی نصبشده بر درب بقعۀ امامزاده سید حمزه چه ویژگیهایی دارند؟ با توجه به منع تصویرگری بالأخص در مکان مذهبی، دلایل نصب این آثار فلزی بر درب بقعۀ امامزاده چه بوده است؟ برای رسیدن به پاسخ این پرسشها از روش توصیفی-تحلیلی بهره گرفته شده است. اطلاعات و دادههای موردنیاز این تحقیق از طریق میدانی با مشاهدۀ آرایههای فلزی نصبشده بر درب و نیز روش کتابخانهای گردآوری شده و روش تجزیه و تحلیل دادهها با توجه به موضوع تحقیق کیفی است. نتایج تحقیق نشان میدهد این اشیاء از فلزات کمبها و تحتتأثیر هنر عامۀ عصر قاجار ساخته شدهاند. اهمیت و جایگاه این مکان در باور عامۀ مردم، عامل نصب این اشیاء بر درب امامزاده و نوعی ابزار برای ادای نذر مسلمان حاجتمند بوده است.دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Identification and Prioritization of Effective Factors on the Design Process and Space Syntax in Traditional Houses
(Case Study: ADAB House of Semnan)شناسایی و اولویت بندی عوامل تأثیرگذار بر روند طراحی و نحو فضا در خانه های سنتی (نمونۀ موردی: خانۀ ادب سمنان)233254371410.22084/nbsh.2019.18458.1897FAمحیاقوچانیکارشناسی ارشد، مهندسی معماری، دپارتمان مهندسی معماری، دانشکدۀ فنی پسران سمنان، دانشگاه فنی و حرفه ای استان سمنان، سمنان، ایران .محمدعربیکارشناس ارشد معماری، عضو هیأت علمی دانشگاه پیام نور، سمنان، ایران.Journal Article20190225Our past artists knew how to use “what”, “how much” and “where”, and thus our rich arts and architecture. Contemporary housing is distanced from the traditional housing model, which is in tune with the rich Iranian-Islamic culture. Eliminating the gap created by both traditional and contemporary patterns requires the retrieval of the values and principles of traditional architecture. The shape of the house is influenced by several factors, all of which are not of the same significance and impact level. The biological spaces in each region have been influenced by the cultural, environmental, social, historical and political origins of that region. The purpose of this study is first of all to achieve the indicators that affect the desirable spatial deployment and then prioritize these indicators in the spatial structure of Iranian-Islamic housing. For this purpose and using descriptive-analytic research method, firstly with the help of library studies and based on the five principles of Dr. Pirnia, the principles of design for spatial organization in traditional homes are presented, which include background and texture, spatial, confidentiality, Geometry, dynamism and construction. Then do some field research, its representation in the spatial structure of the historical ADAB house of Semnan was studied using the diagrams of the syntax of space and software Depthmap. Finally, according to the analysis and analysis of the information gathered, the arrangement of spaces in the semantic spatial discipline of ADAB house’s Semnan by means of the multi-criteria decision making method of Topsis, respectively, is vestibule, entrance, summer and winter, courtyard, guest House, kitchen , toilet and warehouse were prioritized. The results of the research show that the architect based on cultural and religious beliefs, geographic factors and neighborhood of the region and the shape of the land, has organized the traditional home spaces. Therefore, in order to enhance the thinking of the architectural community and achieve a superior architecture, recognizing and exploiting the authentic architecture of the past, it has a significant and significant share.
<strong>Keywords: </strong>Design Process, Space Syntax, Traditional Houses, Topsis Method, Semnan ADAB House.
Introduction
Historical architecture and textures of traditional Iranian cities are the history of the culture and environment of the people who have been forgotten due to the intellectual neglect of the space of recent decades of Iranian architecture and urbanization. The use of housing quantitatively accounts for the highest percentages of urban structures, including historical texture. But in terms of quality, the type and design of housing architecture has a significant and deterministic effect on the way and quality of life of different social strata. Therefore, from two qualitative and quantitative perspectives, paying attention to the design of suitable housing and in accordance with the native culture in each region of Iran in general and the design of housing in the historical context is particularly important (Akrami and Zare, 2014: 56). A home is a place in which a person, while protecting himself against climate factors, can circumvent the pressures and limitations of the community. A home is a place for human rest and peace of mind (Morteza, 2008: 133). Many elements and elements have played a role in the formation of traditional Iranian homes. The factor of culture and understanding of human beings from the world and life, which includes religious beliefs, social structure of the family, way of life, as well as social relations of individuals, has had a significant role in housing and organization of its spatial divisions (Masaeli, 2009: 29).
<strong>Purpose and necessities of the research: </strong>This research is aimed at identifying and prioritizing the factors affecting the desirable spatial deployment. By investigating and analyzing the spatial environment of the House of Literature using the Topsis multi-criteria decision-making method, we tried to identify the position of these principles in the hidden housing model Iranian-Islamic. The syntax of architectural space is one of the methods used in analyzing the sample. The syntax in this method means the investigation of the relation of each unit of space in a set of adjacent spaces (Memarian, 2002: 77).
<strong>Research questions:</strong> The present study also seeks to answer the following questions: 1) What factors are used in the formation of traditional houses, which are a source of human tranquility and arranged their material and spiritual needs in one place? 2) What are the elements of spatial influence in the formation of traditional houses? 3) Which elements have a more significant role in shaping the space-based Iranian-Islamic housing system? 4) How can spatial factors and elements be prioritized in relation to how to influence the shape of the house?
<strong>Research method:</strong> The present study is of a descriptive-analytical nature and in terms of fundamental purpose. However, in the field of contemporary contemporary architecture, it can also be applied in some cases and finds an applied aspect. For the purpose of the study, conventional methods of collecting information, such as documents and fieldwork, have been used. In the section of library studies, the theoretical foundations of the subject under discussion are discussed, and the concept of home and residence, the architecture of space architecture of Iran and the organization of space in traditional homes have been extracted. Then its representation in the spatial structure of the historical house of Semnan literature has been discussed. In this section, in the quantitative analysis section, the data from the explanatory diagrams of space syntax and the Depthmap software are used to extract the findings. Finally, the findings are analyzed by the qualitative method of logical reasoning Is located.
Finally, the multi-criteria decision making method of topsis has been used to prioritize the factors affecting the space constraints.
Conclusion
Traditional Iranian homes that are abundant throughout the country have been formed during the rule of Iranian-Islamic native culture and customs. These houses are the sanctuaries of peace and tranquility and paradise of Iranian Muslim people. In contemporary times, with the rule of modernity and the domination of the Western culture, the houses changed and the dynamics of the construction of traditional houses was discontinued. This research seeks to identify the factors influencing the design and construction of the house by examining the traditional houses and recreating the thought of the architect in the design of these houses. For this purpose, library experts and field observations were referred to the experts and their views on this subject were presented in the framework of the TOPSIS assessment methodology. What is obtained from the analysis indicates that the traditional architect has considered the following factors in order of importance: 1) dynamism, 2) confidentiality, 3) context and context, 4) construction and orientation, 5) geometry, and 6) Spatial species. He also prioritized the necessary premises for houses and included in the design of the vestibule, the entrance of the summer and winter space, the yard, the guest house, the furnishings, the service and the warehouse. Although there are some differences in the life style of today’s generations with previous generations, and consequently the architecture of traditional houses of the same shape and dimensions is not suited to today’s life, but in the design of traditional Iranian homes, there are valuable points of view It is possible to inspire them, using these factors and observing the design of traditional architecture, to upgrade the architecture of contemporary houses and to create a sense of belonging and calm in contemporary homes.
هنرمندان گذشتۀ ما میدانستند که از «چه چیز»، «چه مقدار» و «در کجا» استفاده کنند و به اینصورت هنر و معماری غنی ما تداوم داشت. مسکن معاصر از الگوی مسکن سنتی که آمیخته با فرهنگ غنی ایرانی-اسلامی بوده، فاصله گرفته است. از بین بردن شکاف ایجاد شده بین دو الگوی سنتی و معاصر، نیازمند بازیابی ارزشها و اصول مورد توجه معماری سنتی میباشد. شکل خانه متأثر از عوامل متعددی است که تمامی آنها از نظر میزان اهمیت و تأثیرگذاری در یک سطح قرار ندارند. فضاهای زیستی در هر منطقه، تحتتأثیر خاستگاههای فرهنگی، محیطی، اجتماعی، تاریخی و سیاسی آن منطقه شکل گرفته است. هدف این پژوهش، نخست دستیابی به شاخصهای مؤثر بر نظام استقرار فضایی مطلوب و سپس اولویتبندی این شاخصها در ساختار فضایی مسکن ایرانی-اسلامی است. به اینمنظور پژوهش بهدنبال پاسخ به این پرسش است که کدام عناصر، نقش پررنگتری را در شکلدهی به نظام استقرار فضایی خانههای سنتی دارند؟ فرض بر این است که معمار در انتظام فضایی خانۀ سنتی، با توجه به اهمیت و اولویت هر فضا نسبت به فضای دیگر، به طراحی پرداخته است؛ بنابراین با استفاده از روش تحقیق توصیفی-تحلیلی، ابتدا به استناد مطالعات کتابخانهای و استخراج اصول پنجگانۀ «پیرنیا»، مبانی طراحی برای سازماندهی فضایی در خانههای سنتی، ارائه شده که شامل: زمینه و بافت، گونههای فضایی، محرمیت، هندسه، سلسلهمراتب و ساخت و نیارش است؛ سپس با انجام تحقیق میدانی، نمود آن در ساختار فضایی خانۀ تاریخی ادب سمنان با استفاده از نمودارهای توجیهی نحو فضا و نرمافزار Depthmap مورد بحث و بررسی قرار گرفته است. در آخر با توجه به بررسی و تحلیل اطلاعات جمعآوری شده، ترتیب قرارگیری فضاها در انتظام فضایی خانۀ ادب سمنان به کمک روش تصمیمگیری چند معیارۀ «تاپسیس»، بهترتیب: هشتی، ورودی، تابستان و زمستاننشین، حیاط، مهمانخانه، مطبخ (آشپزخانه)، سرویس بهداشتی و انبار اولویتبندی شد. نتایج پژوهش نشان میدهد، معمار براساس باورهای فرهنگی و دینی، عوامل جغرافیایی و همسایگی منطقه و شکل زمین، فضاهای خانه سنتی را ساماندهی کرده است؛ بنابراین برای ارتقاء تفکر حاکمبر جامعۀ معماری و رسیدن به یک معماری برتر، شناخت و بهرهبرداری از معماری اصیل گذشته، سهم بسزا و قابلتوجهی را بهخود اختصاص میدهد. دانشگاه بوعلی سیناپژوهش های باستان شناسی ایران2345-5225102620201121Study of Prominent Architectural and Structural Features in a Building Called “Khaneh Farmandeh Qoshon” of Bam Citadelمطالعه خصوصیات بارز معماری و ساختاری در بنای موسوم به «خانه فرمانده قشون» ارگ بم255271371510.22084/nbsh.2019.20225.2024FAبهنامپدرامدانشیار گروه مرمت، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران0000-0001-5696-1538سید محمد امینامامیدانشیار گروه مرمت، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران.افشینابراهیمیدانشجوی دکتری مرمت آثار، گروه مرمت، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران.Journal Article20191012Arg-e Bam, is one of the most important works of architecture and urban engineering of Iran’s history. The complex consists of two parts: Sharestan (downtown) and Hakem-neshin (governor’s seat). A significant monument of the governor’s seat is the “Commander-in-Chief’s house”, which lies beyond the third fence. Despite the earthquake of 2003, significant parts of the house were not damaged or less demolished compared to the vast area of Arg-e Bam. After the earthquake the architectural, urban, and archaeological features of Bam received special attention and some research has been completed. However, the house, its chronology, architectural and structural features remained unknown. Therefore, the present research aims to study the house through fieldwork and library studies; also interpreting and analyzing the findings through historical method. The results indicate the production of high quality materials which is made up of a suitable mix of clay and adhesives, resulted in the optimal processing of clay. This led to the less damage to the architectural structures. In addition, proper architectural orders like utilizing the dominant rock bed of the governor’s seat and adopting an efficient way of designing and executing some of the architectural elements and the way of transferring the forces applied to them in the piers and side openings, are some other reasons which leads to the effective reaction to the destructive earthquake forces. The Commander-in-Chief’s house is one of the few buildings to be geographically opposed to the east-west direction of most the architectural units. It has a north-south direction due to the construction of an older historic tower which the house erected on top of it. Being sheltered by the governor’s seat, like the barracks (Sarbaz-Khaneh) and the government stables (Establ-e-shahi), it was safe from the damages of the famous “black” storm blowing north-south. Historical and architectural evidence show that the building was built in 1258 AH in the years after the second sit-in of Agha Khan-e- Mahallati. <br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Arg-e Bam, Commander in Characteristics, Structural Elements. <br /> <br />Introduction <br />Bam citadel complex is located on the northeast corner of the current city of Bam. This is the most important part of the historical axis of Bam city. Bam Citadel is one of the few surviving works of ancient Iranian architecture and urban planning. This collection includes two parts, “Arg” and “Sharestan” in the body of an ancient Iranian city. This collection includes architectural works with various functions including educational, public, religious, commercial, economic, health and private. One of its landmarks is the complex namely “Military Commander House”. There are unanswered questions regarding the architectural features, structural elements and date of construction, and in this research, an attempt is made to answer some of them. The findings have been collected through field studies and libraries, and those findings have been interpreted and analyzed in a so-called “historical” approach. <br /> <br />Location and the Architectural Features <br />The mansion of the military commander is one of the important architectural works that is located in the governmental quarter and in the eastern neighborhood of the building called the barracks. This mansion is located immediately after the barracks’s Sabat and on the eastern front of this building. Its design is such that it follows the historical shape of the tower built on top of it. The axis of its construction is north-south, contrary to the general direction of the public quarter of the citadel and its affiliated architectural units; Although this might be considered as a structural weakness in the direction / orientation of the mansion at first glance, its location on the north side of the governmental quarter has caused, like the barracks and the so-called government stables, keeps it safe from the inconsistent black wind blowing in the north-south direction in Kerman. The royal mansion is located on the southern front and includes two corner ambientes and an Iwan. This part was used as a summer residence of the mansion; Since it has a back to the south - which blocks the sun rays from that side - and is the only front on which the windshield is built. The multiple landscapes and accesses envisaged on the west and south fronts of the mansion have facilitated access to the barracks building while providing the continuous monitoring of the building and traffic to and from the second entrance and the public arena. Those holes appear to have been the location of heavy weapons soldiers in times of need; This is a key issue in the passive defense aspects of the House of military commander. It seems that at the beginning of the design and construction of the mansion, these openings were not foreseen in the body. These holes / shoots were not designed and were created in the last stages of use in the southern, southwestern and western facades. The historic structure of the tower on which the mansion was built upon shows that it was severely damaged before the mansion was built. Therefore, this tower was rebuilt with new materials just when it was decided to build an army commander’s house at the site. This can be seen not only through the materials with different texture, construction, and dimensions, but also in the gap created by the 2004 earthquake between the older and newer layers. The lack of connection of the older architectural layers with the later layers has further created the gap / distance between the two architectural layers. <br />To the northeast of the mansion is a complex that is connected to the house of the commander through two vestibules and a room. Also, the entrance to this section can be reached from the historical eastern vestibule, which is the old gate, i.e. the third entrance, which was also the dedicated gate of the upper terrace of the governmental area. The arrangement of the spaces confirms the fact that it was used as a courtroom. Its dome room is one of the few architectural elements that survived the earthquake of 2004.High-quality materials, including bricks, which are carefully selected in the optimal composition of their ingredients, along with efficient firing instructions, are the most important reasons that have led to the stability of this part. These points are exactly the same orders that were ignored in the reconstruction of successive urban suburbs in the public area, the need to hasten the production of materials and accelerate the implementation of architectural elements and structures, and have intensified the recent earthquake damage. <br />The manner of access of the mansion to the barracks building and the homogeneous and equal materials show that these two buildings were built at the same time. Description of some tourists in 1810 AD / 1225 AH. from the governmental area, which at that time was exclusively in the hands of the governor / ruler of the city, reveals that at least until this time the local Sakhlo / local army were not present in this section; This means that the barracks and the mansion of the commander of the army were built sometime after this year.Narrations and descriptions after 1259 AH, which were obtained after the second Aga Khan Mahallati sit-in in Bam Citadel, have led to the presence of troops and military equipment in this area. Therefore, it seems that the time and reason for the construction of the mansion of the commander and the barracks in this section should be known in this period and shortly after. Especially since the ruler of Kerman ordered the residents of the citadel to evacuate the complex and settle in the new city. Before that, the barracks and the house of commander were in a place now known as “Konari Mahalle”; After the evacuation of the city and the construction of the new commander’s house and barracks, the only inhabitants of the citadel, who were also stationed exclusively in the governmental area, included the Sakhlu or local army soldiers. <br /> <br />Conclusion <br />Findings show that the production of high-quality materials that with the optimal combination of clay and suitable adhesive has led to the optimal processing of clay, has caused part of the architectural structures of the building to be less damaged. This is important along with the appropriate support instructions, such as using the governmental area’s rock bed in some parts and adopting efficient methods in designing and executing some architectural elements and how to transfer the forces on them in the rafters and side openings, are some of the reasons that some structures reacted appropriately against the destructive forces of the earthquake. <br />The house of the commander is one of the few buildings whose geographical direction of the building is north-south, in contrast to the east-west direction of most architectural units; The reason for this goes back to the construction of an older historic tower on which the mansion was built. Because it is sheltered by the tall structure of the governmental quarter, like the barracks and government stables, it was protected from the dangers of the famous “black” wind, which has a north-south direction. Historical and architectural evidences show that this mansion has been constructed in the years after the second Aga Khan Mahallati in 1258 AH. for the residence of the commander of the army to which they had been transferred.مجموعۀ ارگ بم، یکی از آثار شاخص معماری و شهرسازی تاریخی ایران بهشمار میرود. این مجموعه شامل دو بخش «شارستان» و «حاکمنشین» است. یکی از بناهای مهم حاکمنشین، عمارت «خانۀ فرمانده قشون» است که در ورای حصار سوم قرار گرفته است. باوجود وقوع زمینلرزۀ سال 1382 ه.ش. بخشهای قابلتوجهای از این عمارت آسیب ندیدند یا نسبت به عرصۀ عمومی مجموعۀ ارگ بم کمتر تخریب شدند. با وجودی که پس از آن رخداد طبیعی توجه ویژهای بهبررسی ویژگیهای معماری، شهرسازی و باستانشناسی ارگ بم شد و پژوهشهایی نیز بهانجام رسید، این عمارت و زمان ساخت و ویژگیهای معماری و ساختاری آن، ناشناخته باقیمانده است؛ از اینروی پژوهش پیشِرو کوشیده است با مطالعات میدانی و کتابخانهای و با تفسیر و تحلیل یافتهها با بهرهگیری از رهیافت موسوم به تاریخی به مطالعۀ این عمارت بپردازد. پرسشهای پژوهش عبارتند: 1- خانۀ فرمانده قشون در چه زمانی ساخته شده است؟ 2- این عمارت از چه ویژگیهای معماری بهرهمند است؟ یافتههای تحقیق نشان میدهند تولید مصالح مرغوب که با ترکیب بهینۀ خاک رس و چسبانندۀ مناسب به فرآوری مطلوب خشت انجامیده، باعث شده که ساختارهای معماری کمتر آسیب ببیند. این مهم در کنار دستورهای نیارشی مناسب ازجمله بهرهگیری از بستر صخرهای حاکمنشین در برخی از قسمتها و اتخاذ شیوهای کارآمد در طراحی و اجرای برخی از عناصر معماری و نحوۀ انتقال نیروهای وارده بر آنها در جرزها و دهانههای کناری، از دلایلی هستند که برخی از ساختارها را در مقابل نیروهای مخرب زمینلرزه با واکنش مناسب همراه ساختند. خانۀ فرمانده قشون از معدود عماراتی است که جهت جغرافیایی ساختمانش برخلاف راستای شرقی-غربی عموم واحدهای معماری، شمالی-جنوبی است؛ دلیل اینامر، بهساختمان برج تاریخی کهنتری بازمیگردد که عمارت بر فرازش ساخته شد؛ چون در پناه ساختار بلند حاکمنشین قرار گرفته است، همانند بنای سربازخانه و اصطبل حکومتی از مخاطرات باد معروف «سیاه» که وزشی شمالی-جنوبی دارد، در امان ماند. قراین تاریخی و شواهد معماری نشان میدهند که این عمارت در سالهای پس از رخداد تحصن دوم «آقاخان محلاتی» در سال 1258 هـ.ق. ساخته شده است.