A Typology of Floral Motifs on Ceilings and Wooden Column Capitals in Hypostyle Mosques of East Azerbaijan during the Safavid and Qajar Periods

Abstract
In the Azerbaijan region, the wooden-columned mosques stand out as exceptional representations of the Safavid and Qajar periods, with few parallels elsewhere in Iran. The majority of these mosques were erected under the Safavids and subsequently underwent restoration and augmentation particularly during the Qajar era receiving supplementary structural and decorative additions. A defining artistic characteristic of these mosques is their paintings made on wood featuring floral, arabesque (eslimi), and epigraphic motifs adorning the ceiling panels and the wooden muqarnas capitals of the columns. This study aims to classify the various types of floral and arabesque ornamentation found on the roof structures and timber columns of the hypostyle mosques in East Azerbaijan Province and to date them using comparative chronological framework. The research corpus encompasses all extant timber columnar mosques in the province, identified and documented through comprehensive field surveys. Among thirty-eight documented cases, eleven were confirmed to bear painted floral and arabesque motifs on their wooden elements. The results reveal ten distinct floral motif types executed on the wooden muqarnas capitals, cubic ornament boxes (sandūqcheh) mounted on the principal beams (shah-tir), the load-bearing joists, and the interstitial wooden spandrels (par-do) between these joists. These motifs synthesize late Islamic Iranian artistic conventions and present an innovative approach to interior mosque ornamentation. Although analogous motifs appear sporadically in some contemporaneous structures, the intensity of execution, thematic diversity, and profusion of designs in these mosques are unparalleled. The Safavid-period motifs are predominantly abstract, resonating with contemporary carpet and manuscript binding patterns and exhibiting minimal naturalism. In contrast, Qajar-period ornamentation while rooted in indigenous tradition displays discernible influences from Western prototypes. The selection of these motifs is attributed to the esoteric aesthetic philosophy of Islamic art, coupled with the prevailing cultural and religious milieu during the Safavid and Qajar eras.
Keywords: Timber Hypostyle Mosques, Floral Motifs, Painted Woodwork, Safavid and Qajar periods, East Azerbaijan. 
 
Introduction
The study of floral motifs yields significant insights into the material and spiritual worldviews of past societies. Throughout all historical periods and cultures, plants have played a pivotal role in human subsistence, daily necessities, livestock fodder, medicinal practices, and the artistic expression of craftsmen. Consequently, certain plant species have attained a sacred status within human belief systems. In the context of the Islamic era, the embellishment of mosques and other sacred buildings like mausoleums and madrasas has significantly integrated plant motifs derived from religious principles, surpassing their use in other artistic realms; these motifs were generally applied alongside textual inscriptions or as separate decorative elements on surfaces made of tile, plaster, wood, or stone.
Although hypostyle columnar mosques first emerged in the early Islamic centuries, they were progressively supplanted by the Four iwān (Chahār-iwān) plan during the Middle Islamic Period, particularly with the advent of the Seljuk dynasty in Iran. It is noteworthy that none of the extant hypostyle mosques predating the late Islamic centuries exhibit painted floral motifs on wood. The distinctive revival of the columnar hypostyle form in the Safavid Period especially within the Azerbaijan region featured a renewed emphasis on timber construction and the reinvigoration of painted wood ornamentation. The studied columnar mosques, with their entirely wooden columns and ceilings, present a unique typological variant within regional religious architecture.
Through systematic field surveys, the authors have identified thirty-eight hypostyle mosques with wooden structures in East Azerbaijan Province, a figure that likely underrepresents the original total due to urban expansion and destruction. This research focuses specifically on eleven of these mosques that retain a variety of painted floral motifs on their wooden ceilings and columns. Accordingly, the principal research questions are:
1. Into how many categories can the vegetal and arabesque motifs adorning the wooden ceilings and columns of East Azerbaijan’s mosques be classified? 2. How can the relative chronology of these mosques be established based on their floral motif typologies? 3. What factors underlie the selection of each vegetal motif type for decoration? 
 
Discussion
A comparative analysis of the diverse floral motif types in the surveyed mosques reveals a marked variability in design between the Safavid and Qajar periods. Unlike the Safavid examples which favor abstraction, minimal naturalism, and restrained use of warm pigments (e.g., reds, browns, oranges, and yellows) the Qajar motifs exhibit greater complexity, repeated small-flower patterns with less strict symmetry, and enhanced naturalism. These Qajar designs are often arranged in horizontal and vertical registers within dense, networked frameworks. Field evidence indicates that Qajar-period vegetal ornaments employ more lifelike rendering, whereas Safavid compositions lean toward stylization and formal reduction.
Moreover, the backgrounds of Qajar motifs demonstrate heightened naturalistic detailing, and the floral compositions manifest in various framing devices: circular cartouches, repetitive flower bands, and floral arrangements set within vase motifs. The absence of comparable designs in other Islamic art media underscores the innovative development of these motifs, particularly during the Qajar era.
The dates inscribed on mosque structures from the Safavid and Qajar periods closely align with the construction and decorative styles typical of those times. For instance, the Mehrābād Mosque in Bonab features the dates 951, 1020, 1100, 1200, and 1261 AH, whereas the Qāżī Mosque in Maragha lists the years 1135, 1230, 1253, and 1279 AH. Among the recorded epigraphic dates, only three found in three separate mosques are from the Safavid period; the Jāme‘ of Meydān at Bonab and Esmā‘īl Beig Mosque do not have any dated inscriptions, and the other dates are associated with restorations from the Qajar era. Nevertheless, typological analysis of the floral motifs in the eleven surveyed mosques indicates that, with the exception of Gugān Mosque which is entirely a Qajar foundation all other examples were originally erected during the Safavid era and subsequently underwent restorative or additive interventions in the Qajar Period.
In elucidating the rationale behind the selection of specific plant motifs for the ceilings and columns, one must consider their symbolic implications within Islamic art. The profusion and vivid coloring of medallion (turanj) motifs, compared to other decorative schemes, likely evoked the imagery of the “Highest Paradise,” thereby enhancing spiritual appeal for worshippers. When integrated with other vegetal patterns, these motifs foster visual cohesion and harmony within the mosque’s interior. Furthermore, artists deliberately employed the enigmatic repetition of vegetal and arabesque designs in Islam’s principal sacred spaces to elevate the sense of sanctity, tranquility, and devotional fervor among congregants.
 
Conclusions
Among the thirty-eight mosques surveyed in East Azerbaijan Province, eleven feature floral ornamentation on ceiling spandrels, load-bearing beams, non-structural wooden coffer boxes, and muqarnas capitals. This study identified ten distinct vegetal motif types dating to the Safavid and Qajar periods. Although analogous motifs exist in other artistic media, the remarkable abundance and diversity of these designs particularly on wooden surfaces distinguish the studied examples.
Research on relative chronology suggests that the importance and ongoing utilization of these sanctuaries from the Safavid to the Qajar period resulted in many original motifs being created during the Safavid era, with later restorations and enhancements from the Qajar period contributing to the decorative design. Key characteristics of the ornamentation include the symmetry of compositions, heightened naturalism and chromatic variety in Qajar motifs compared to their Safavid counterparts, and a harmonious integration with Qur’anic inscriptions, sacred names (Asmāʾ al-Ḥusnā), and devotional poetry. These components work together to prevent visual uniformity and enhance the spiritual atmosphere of the interior space. Additionally, the intentional use of particular color schemes has played a crucial role in strengthening the overall unity of the decorative scheme.