Cultural Responses of Prehistoric Societies in North Central Iran to Holocene Climate Change

Authors

1 Department of History and Archaeology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.

2 Assistant Professor, Archaeological Research Center, Tehran, Iran.

3 Assistant Professor, Department of Archaeology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

In the Holocene, despite the increase in climate sustainability compared to the last glacial, Abrupt Climate Change (ACC) has occurred repeatedly and periodically on global and regional scales, which have affected the culture and lifestyle of human societies. Effective human responses to these climatic events have always been possible through adaptation or migration. The cooling/warming climatic periods that have come with natural consequences such as extreme weather events (severe droughts, dust storms, heat waves, cold spells, torrential rainfalls and floods), due to the destruction and reduction of crop production, famine, social conflicts, widespread migration, displacement, disease outbreaks and rising mortality rates have also had significant effects on the physical and mental health of humans. This research seeks to answer the main question of how Holocene Abrupt climate changes have led to the decline and collapse of prehistoric cultures in the cultural region of North Central Iran (NCI). Given that the set of consequences during the current global climate change (global warming) are taking place, and there is also evidence from a historical period in this regard, it is likely that prehistoric cultures, during climate change periods, have fallen for reasons mentioned. This research deals with the possible culture-climate association in NCI during the 7th to 5th millennia B.C.s. According to the paleoclimate research and the archaeological information, at least 4 effective climate change (Cooling/Warming - Drought) events are likely to be a challenge and disruption to the inhabitants of this region. Likely, most of the Sialk I period have been spent in a relatively unfavorable climate, but there was a mild and wet climate in the late period, as well as the early Cheshmeh Ali phase. It seems that the first cultural flourishing period in NCI has occurred between about 5300-5000 B.C., and the second progress period, related to the late Cheshmeh Ali period, between about 4700-4400 B.C.. By the late 5th millennium B.C., there has been a cultural decline and a decrease in the number of settlements in most areas of the region.
Keywords: North Central Iran (NCI), Holocene, Abrupt Climate Change (ACC), Cultural Response, Sialk, Cheshmeh Ali.
 
Introduction & Method
Paleoclimate studies have shown that climate change has occurred repeatedly in the past and will happen in the future. ACCs occur naturally; however, human intervention in the climate system can also increase in possibility of the events (Alley, 2003). The Holocene epoch began at about 9700 B.C., at the end of the 2.5 million-year-old Pleistocene Age. Although Holocene does not have extreme climatic anomalies similar to the last glacial, it has undergone ACCs that have affected human cultures. The prehistoric societies of Iran, especially NCI, have been affected by climate change and fluctuations since the beginning of the Holocene (Simultaneously with the advent of the Neolithic Age), and their lives have undergone natural disasters. The set of archaeological information and paleoclimate research (with high-resolution) clearly show the link between Human - Climate, but the reasons for the decline and collapse of ancient cultures and civilizations in Iran have not been studied so far. The main question of this research is about this issue. Given the consequences of the current climate change (global warming), which by creating extreme weather events (such as droughts, floods, heatwaves, cold spells, etc.), greatly affect the environmental conditions of the earth , and threaten the health of human, it is assumed that Probably, Holocene ACCs, with such events and effects, have disturbed the subsistence system of prehistoric societies. This research is based on two main aspects: First, the results of Paleoclimate studies of Holocene in Iran and neighboring regions, as well as Greenland Ice Sheet Project (GISP2) and North Atlantic; secondly, the findings of field surveys and archaeological excavations in NCI is related to the settlements belonging to the 7th to 5th millennium B.C. (Sialk I, Cheshmeh Ali and Sialk III1-3).
 
 
Paleoclimate Research
According to recent studies in Iran (Neor Lake, Hamoun Lake and Jazmourian Playa), the 6200 B.C. cooling event has been associated with air dryness and increased wind and dust activity. Then, another period of drought was caused by an increase in temperature, with the high-resolution diagram of Neor Lake showing a significant increase in dry conditions between 5600-5500 B.C.. Jazmourian Playa diagram also determines a dry period with a peak of 5500 B.C.. Given the low accuracy of Hamoun Lake diagram (with 2 radiocarbon samples), it is likely that the 5300 B.C. drought (with a 200-year error) is actually related to the same time. The reason why Zeribar Lake research does not show the 6200 B.C. event is likely to be related to their low resolution. These studies are not capable of showing the climate change of 200-300 years. Summarizing the paleoclimate studies carried out elsewhere in the world, it can be concluded with a relatively high confidence that there were periods of dryness from ca. 6500 to 5500 B.C. and from ca. 4400 to 4000, during which, there was a relatively short-lived fluctuation of humid. Probably drought fluctuations occurred during the favorable period of 5400-4400 B.C.. The onset of a long period of heat and a rise in humidity from the early 6th millennium B.C., which was observed in European and Canadian studies, and the occurrence of successive droughts in the millennium according to Arabia and Jordan studies, shows that probably warm periods in Europe have been accompanied by droughts in the region. Therefore, the occurrence of a dry period in the extreme warming event of Greenland is also possible in 4900-5000 B.C..
 
Archaeological Evidence
The earliest evidence of the Neolithic settlements in NCI belongs to the Shahrud area. Therefore, it seems that the eastern part of NCI (western part of the central desert basin) is probably settled earlier than the western part (Salt Lake basin). The number of settlements across NCI in the first half of the 6th millennium B.C. is limited to 6 tepes. Apart from Eastern Tepe of Sang-e Chaxmaq (in Shahroud area), the architectural evidence related to the period, which indicates the sedentary, has not yet been obtained from the settlements of the Salt Lake basin. Since about 5400 B.C., due to climatic stability, an increase in humidity and annual rainfall, was provided agricultural conditions and permanent settlement in this region. Since then, the number of settlements has increased considerably. In most settlements of this phase, it was found the evidence of architectural and agricultural activities. The second phase of the flourishing of the Cheshmeh Ali period can be attributed to about 4700-4400 B.C. During this time, many villages in the region were built up and there was a significant increase in population. Paleoclimate studies indicate a relatively favorable climate for this period. However, another climatic change, which started from about 4400 B.C. and gradually increased, seems to have made life difficult for the people of the region, so that from about 4300 to 4000 B.C., we see a significant decline in the number of settlements.
 
Conclusion
The cultural evolution of human societies in NCI during the 7th to 5th millennium B.C. has been significantly related to the climatic condition, and the occurrence of climate change has challenged the cultures due to the impact on human health and subsistence system.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

- چایچی‌امیرخیز، احمد، ۱۳۸۶، «تپه‌ی مافین‌آباد»، ویژه‌نامه‌ی همایش پژوهش‌های باستان‌شناسی استان تهران در سال ۱۳۸۵، تهران: پژوهشکده‌ی باستان‌شناسی سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری استان تهران و دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد ورامین-پیشوا، صص: ۳۷-۴۵.
- حجازی‌زاده، زهرا؛ و جوی‌زاده، سعید، ۱۳۸۹، مقدمه‌ای بر خشک‌سالی و شاخص‌های آن، تهران: انتشارات سمت.
- حصاری، مرتضی، ۱۳۹۳، «کاوش لایه‌نگاری معین‌آباد، شهرستان پیشوا، استان تهران، استقراری از دوره‌ی روستانشینی ابتدایی در شرق دشت ری، مرکز فلات ایران»، گزارش‌های سیزدهمین گردهمایی سالانه‌ی باستان‌شناسی ایران، ۱۰ تا ۱۲ اسفندماه ۱۳۹۳، تهران: پژوهشگاه میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، صص: ۱۱۰-۱۱۳.
- حصاری، مرتضی؛ علی‌یاری، احمد؛ و اکبری، حسن، ۱۳۸۶، «گزارش لایه‌نگاری و تعیین حریم در محوطه‌ی باستانی شغالی پیشوا»، گزارش‌های باستان‌شناسی (۷)، مجموعه مقالات نهمین گردهمایی سالانه باستان‌شناسی ایران، تهران: پژوهشگاه سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، پژوهشکده باستان‌شناسی، صص: ۱۶۴-۱۳۱.
- حمزه، محمدعلی؛ محمودی قرائی، محمدحسین؛ علیزاده لاهیجانی، حمید؛ موسوی‌حرمی، رضا؛ و جمالی، مرتضی، 1396، «رسوبات بادی نهشته شده در دریاچه‌ی هامون؛ نشانگر فراوانی و شدت توفان‌های گرد و غبار سیستان از انتهای آخرین یخبندان تاکنون»، پژوهش‌های چینه‌نگاری و رسوب‌شناسی، دوره‌ی ۳۳، شماره‌ی ۱، صص: ۱-۲۴.
- دارک، کن، آر.، ۱۳۷۹، مبانی نظری باستان‌شناسی، کامیار عبدی، تهران: مرکز نشر دانشگاهی.
- رضایی‌کلج، محمدرضا؛ داوودی، حسین؛ و صادقی؛ ابراهیم، ۱۳۸۹، «گزارش مقدماتی گمانه‌زنی در محوطه‌ی نوسنگی جدید مای‌تپه، بوئین زهرا، قزوین»، پیام باستان‌شناس، دوره‌ی ۷، شماره‌ی ۱۳، صص: ۱-۲۲.
- سرلک، سیامک؛ و معجزاتی، فریبا، ۱۳۸۶، «اسماعیل‌آباد و گاهنگاری فلات‌مرکزی ایران»، نامه‌ی پژوهشگاه، شماره‌های ۲۰-۲۱، صص: ۱۵-۳۴.
- شیخ‌بیکلواسلام، بابک، ۱۳۹۶، «تأثیر تحولات اقلیمی عصر هولوسن میانی بر فرهنگ‌های هزاره‌ی ششم تا چهارم پیش‌از‌میلاد در شمال ایرانِ مرکزی«، استاد راهنما: احمد چایچی‌امیرخیز، رساله‌ی دکتری باستان‌شناسی پیش‌از‌تاریخ، تهران: دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد علوم و تحقیقات.
- علیجانی، بهلول، ۱۳۷۵، آب‌و‌هوای ایران، تهران: پیام نور.
- فاضلی‌نشلی، حسن؛ کانینگهام، رابین؛ ولی‌پور، حمیدرضا؛ یانگ، روث؛ گیلمور، گوین؛ و مقصودی، مهران، ۱۳۸۶، «گزارش مقدماتی فصل دوم کاوش محوطه‌ی باستانی تپه پردیس ۸۵-۱۳۸۴»، گزارش‌های باستان‌شناسی (۷)، مجموعه مقالات نهمین گردهمایی سالانه باستان‌شناسی ایران، تهران: پژوهشگاه سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، پژوهشکده باستان‌شناسی، صص: ۴۰۷-۴۳۷.
- فاضلی‌نشلی، حسن، ۱۳۸۵، باستان‌شناسی دشت قزوین، تهران: انتشارات دانشگاه تهران.
- فاضلی‌نشلی، حسن، ۱۳۸۰، «بررسی‌های باستان‌شناسی در دشت تهران»، مجله دانشکده‌ی ادبیات و علوم انسانی دانشگاه تهران، زمستان، صص: ۱۹۷-۲۱۵.
- فاگان، برایان، ۱۳۸۲، سرآغاز: درآمدی بر باستان‌شناسی (اصول، مبانی و روش‌ها)، ترجمه‌ی غلامعلی شاملو، تهران: سمت.
- کابلی، میرعابدین، ۱۳۹۴، کاوش‌های قره تپه قمرود، تهران: پژوهشگاه سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی کشور.
- گیرشمن، رومن، ۱۳۷۹، سیلک کاشان، ترجمه‌ی اصغر کریمی، تهران: پژوهشگاه سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی کشور.
- مجیدزاده، یوسف، ۱۳۸۹، کاوش‌های محوطه باستانی ازبکی، دو جلد (معماری و سفال)، تهران: اداره کل میراث‌فرهنگی استان تهران.
- مدرس‌‌پور، آزاده، ۱۳۷۶، «تأثیر رویداد ENSO (النینو-نوسان جنوبی) بر بارندگی‌ و دمای ایران»، نیوار، شماره‌ی ۳۳، صص: ۶۷-۷۷.
- مصدقی، فرشید، ۱۳۹۵، «نویافته‌های باستان‌شناسی شهری در تهران»،  تهران، کهن شهر من، تهران: موزه ملی ایران، صص: ۴۷-۶۳.
- مقصودی، مهران؛ جعفربیگلو، منصور؛ و رحیمی، امید، ۱۳۹۳، «شواهد رسوبی تغییرات اقلیمی در دریاچه‌ی زریبار طی دوره‌ی هولوسن»، پژوهش‌های جغرافیایی طبیعی، دوره‌ی ۴۶، شماره‌ی ۱، صص: ۴۳-۵۸.
- ملک‌شهمیرزادی، صادق، ۱۳۸۲، «تپه شورابه»، نقره‌کاران سیلک، طرح بازنگری سیلک، تهران: پژوهشکده باستان‌شناسی سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی کشور، صص: ۱۶۹-۱۷۷.
- ملک‌شهمیرزادی، صادق، ۱۳۷۸، ایران در پیش‌از‌تاریخ، تهران: سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی کشور.
 
- Adger, W. N.; Barnett, J.; Brown, K.; Marshall, N. & O'brien, K., 2013, “Cultural dimensions of climate change impacts and adaptation”, Nature Climate Change 3(2): 112-117.
- Alley, R. B. & Ágústsdóttir, A. M., 2005, “The 8 ka event: cause and consequences of a major Holocene abrupt limate change”, Quaternary Sci Rev 24: 1123-1149.
- Alley, R. B., 2004, GISP2 ice core temperature and accumulation data. IGBP PAGES/World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Data Contribution Series, 13.
- Alley, R. B.” Marotzke, J.” Nordhaus, W. D.; Overpeck, J. T.; Peteet, D. M.; Pielke, R. A., ... & Wallace, J. M., 2003, “Abrupt climate change”, science 299(5615): 2005-2010.
- Alley, R.B.; Mayewski, P.A.; Sowers, T.; Stuiver, M.; Taylor, K.C. & Clark, P.U., 1997, “Holocene climatic instability: a prominent, widespread event 8200 yr ago”, Geology 25: 483-486.
- Anderson, D. G.; Maasch, K. A.; Sandweiss, D. H., & Mayewski, P. A., 2007, “Climate and culture change: exploring Holocene transitions”, Climate Change and Cultural Dynamics, 1-23.
- Bar-Matthews, M., & Ayalon, A., 2011. “Mid-Holocene climate variations revealed by high-resolution speleothem records from Soreq Cave, Israel and their correlation with cultural changes”, Holocene 21: 163-171.
- Bar-Matthews, M.; Ayalon, A. & Kaufman, A., 1997, “Late Quaternary paleoclimate in the eastern Mediterranean region from stable isotope analysis of speleothems at Soreq Cave, Israel”, Quaternary Research 47(2), 155-168.
- Berger, A. L., 1978, “Long-Term Variations of Caloric Insolation Resulting from the Earth's Orbital Elements 1”, Quaternary research 9(2): 139-167.
- Bertun-Brown, T., 1979, Kara Tepe, Oxford shire, London.
- Blinman, E., 2008, “2000 years of cultural adaptation to climate change in the southwestern United States”, AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 37(sp14): 489-497.
- Berger, A., 2013, Milankovitch and climate: understanding the response to astronomical forcing (Vol. 126). Springer Science & Business Media.
- Bond, G.; Kromer, B.; Beer, J.; Muscheler, R.; Evans, M. N.; Showers, W., ... & Bonani, G., 2001, “Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene”, Science 294(5549): 2130-2136.
- Bond, G.; Showers, W.; Cheseby, M.; Lotti, R.; Almasi, P.; Priore, P., ... & Bonani, G., 1997, “A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and glacial climates”, Science 278(5341): 1257-1266.
- Bos, J. A. A.; Van Geel, B.; Van der Plicht, J. & Bohncke, S. J. P., 2007, “Preboreal climate oscillations in Europe: Wiggle-match dating and synthesis of Dutch high-resolution multi-proxy records”, Quaternary Sci Rev 26: 1927-1950.
- Cavallari, B. J. & Rosenmeier, M. F., 2007, December. A multi-proxy paleoclimate record of rapid Holocene climate variability from northern Greece/Greek Macedonia. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts.
- Clark, P. U.; Pisias, N. G.; Stocker, T. F. & Weaver, A. J., 2002, “The role of the thermohaline circulation in abrupt climate change”, Nature 415(6874): 863.
- Claussen, M., 2008, “Holocene rapid land cover change–evidence and theory”, Natural Climate Variability and Global Warming, 232-253.
- deMenocal, P. B., 2011, “Climate and human evolution”, Science 331(6017): 540-542.
- Frumkin, H.; Hess, J.; Luber, G.; Malilay, J., & McGeehin, M., 2008, “Climate change: the public health response”, American journal of public health 98(3): 435-445.
- Denton, G. H., & Karlén, W., 1973, “Holocene climatic variations—their pattern and possible cause”, Quaternary Research 3(2), 155-205.
- Fazeli, H.; Coningham, R. A. E. and Batt, C. M., 2004, “Cheshmeh-Ali revisited: towards an absolute dating of the Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic of Iran's Tehran Plain,” Iran, 42(1), 13-23.
- Gillmore, G. K.; Coningham, R. A. E.; Fazeli, H.; Young, R.L.; Magshoudi, M.; Batt, C.M. & Rushworth, G., 2009, “Irrigation on the Tehran Plain, Iran: Tepe Pardis—The site of a possible Neolithic irrigation feature?”, Catena 78(3): 285-300.
- Hamzeh, M. A.; Mahmudy-Gharaie, M. H.; Alizadeh-Lahijani, H.; Moussavi-Harami, R.; Djamali, M. & Naderi-Beni, A., 2016, “Paleolimnology of Lake Hamoun (e Iran): Implication for Past Climate Changes and Possible Impacts on Human Settlements”, Palaios 31(12): 616-629.
- Holton, J. R., & Dmowska, R., 1989, El Niño, La Niña, and the southern oscillation (Vol. 46). Academic press.
- Hunt, C. O.; Elrishi, H. A.; Gilbertson, D. D.; Gratten, J.; McLaren, S.; Pyatt, F. B.; Rushworth, G. & Barker, G. W., 2004, “Early Holocene environments in the Wadi Faynan, Jordan”, The Holocene 14: 921–930.
- Jalut, G.; Amat, A. E.; Bonnet, L.; Gauquelin, T. & Fontugne, M., 2000, “Holocene climatic changes in the Western Mediterranean, from south-east France to south-east Spain”, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 160(3): 255-290.
- Masuda, S.; Goto, T.; Iwazaki, T.; Kamura, H.; Furosato, S.; Ikeda, J.; Tagaya, A.; Minami, M. & Tsuneki, A., 2013, “Tappeh Sang-e Chakhmaq: investigatsions of a Neolithic site in northeastern Iran”, The neolithisation of Iran: the formation of new societies, (translated by D. Gainty & J. Sather), 201-40.
- McMichael, A. J., 2012, “Insights from past millennia into climatic impacts on human health and survival”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(13): 4730-4737.
- McMichael, A. J.; Woodruff, R. E., & Hales, S., 2006, “Climate change and human health: present and future risks”, The Lancet 367(9513): 859-869.
- Migowski, C.; Stein, M.; Prasad, S.; Negendank, J. F., & Agnon, A., 2006, “Holocene climate variability and cultural evolution in the Near East from the Dead Sea sedimentary record”, Quaternary Research 66(3): 421-431.
- Modarres, R.; Sarhadi, A. & Burn, D. H., 2016, “Changes of extreme drought and flood events in Iran”, Global and Planetary Change 144: 67-81.
- Nakamura, T., 2014, “Radiocarbon dating of charcoal remains excavated from Tappeh Sang-e Chakhmaq”, The first farming village in northeast Iran and Turan: Tappeh Sang-e Chakhmaq and beyond, 9-12.
- Neff, U.; Burns, S. J.; Mangini, A.; Mudelsee, M.; Fleitmann, D. & Matter, A., 2001, “Strong coherence between solar variability and the monsoon in Oman between 9 and 6 kyr ago”, Nature 411: 290–293.
- Parker, A. G.; Goudie, A. S.; Stokes, S.; White, K.; Hodson, M. J.; Manning, M. & Kennet, D., 2006, “A record of Holocene climate change from lake geochemical analyses in southeastern Arabia”, Quaternary Research 66(3): 465-476.
- Petrie, C. A. & Weeks, L., 2018, “The Iranian Plateau and the Indus River Basin”, in: Chiotis, E. (ed.), Climate Changes in the Holocene: Impacts and Human Adaptation. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, pp. 293-325.
- Pollard, A. M.; Fazeli Nashli, H.; Davoudi, H.; Sarlak, S.; Helwing, B. & Saeidi, F., 2013, “A new radiocarbon chronology for the North Central Plateau of Iran from the Late Neolithic to the Iron Age”, Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan 45: 27-50.
- Prentice, R., 2009, “Cultural Responses to Climate Change in the Holocene”, Anthós 1(1):1-13.
- Quellet-Bernier, M., & deVernal, A., 2018, “Proxy Indicators of Climate in the Past”, Climate Changes in the Holocene: Impacts and Human Adaptation, 41-76.
- Rezvani, H. & Roustaei, K., 2016, “Preliminary report on two seasons of excavations at Tappeh Deh Kheir, Bastam Plain, north-east Iran”, The Neolithic of the Iranian Plateau: recent research, 15-52.
- Robine, J. M.; Cheung, S. L. K.; Le Roy, S.; Van Oyen, H.; Griffiths, C.; Michel, J. P., & Herrmann, F. R., 2008, “Death toll exceeded 70,000 in Europe during the summer of 2003”, Comptes rendus biologies 331(2): 171-178.
- Rosén, P.; Segerström, U.; Eriksson, L.; Renberg, I., & Birks, H. J. B., 2001, “Holocene climatic change reconstructed from diatoms, chironomids, pollen and near-infrared spectroscopy at an alpine lake (Sjuodjijaure) in northern Sweden”, The Holocene 11(5): 551-562.
- Roustaei, K.; Mashkour, M. & Tengberg, M., 2015, “Tappeh Sang-e Chakhmaq and the beginning of the Neolithic in north-east Iran”, Antiquity 89(345), 573-595.
- Roustaei, K., 2012, “Archaeological survey of the Šahroud area, northeast Iran: a landscape approach”, Archäologische Mitteilungenaus Iran und Turan 44, 191-219.
- Sharifi, A.; Pourmand, A.; Canuel, E. A.; Ferer-Tyler, E.; Peterson, L. C.; Aichner, B.; ... & Lahijani, H. A., 2015, “Abrupt climate variability since the last deglaciation based on a high-resolution, multi-proxy peat record from NW Iran: The hand that rocked the Cradle of Civilization?”, Quaternary Science Reviews 123: 215-230.
- Thomas, E. R.; Wolff, E. W.; Mulvaney, R.; Steffensen, J. P.; Johnsen, S. J.; Arrowsmith. C.; White, J. W. C.; Vaughn, B. & Popp, T., 2007, “The 8.2 ka event from Greenland ice cores”, Quaternary Sci Rev 26: 70-81.
- Trombley, J.; Chalupka, S., & Anderko, L., 2017, “Climate change and mental health”, AJN The American Journal of Nursing 117(4): 44-52.
- Vaezi, A.; Ghazban, F.; Tavakoli, V.; Routh, J.; Beni, A. N.; Bianchi, T. S.; Curtis, J. H. & Kylin, H., 2019, “A Late Pleistocene-Holocene multi-proxy record of climate variability in the Jazmurian playa, southeastern Iran”, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 514, 754-767.
- Verheyden, S.; Nader, F. H.; Cheng, H. J.; Edwards, L. R. & Swennen, R., 2008, “Paleoclimate reconstruction in the Levant region from the geochemistry of a Holocene stalagmite from the Jeita cave”, Lebanon. Quaternary Research 70(3): 368-381.
- Wasylikowa, K.; Witkowski, A.; Walanus, A.; Hutorowicz, A.; Alexandrowicz, S. W. & Jerzy J. L., 2006, “Palaeolimnology of Lake Zeribar, Iran, and its climatic implications”, Quaternary Research 66(3): 477-493.

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics