Modification of Human Skulls in Tol-e Chega Sofla

Authors

1 PhD in Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran

2 Professor, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran

3 Assistant Professor, Department of Archaeology, Research Institute of Archaeology, Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism (RICHT), Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Abstract
Modified human skulls are among the unique finds recovered from archaeological contexts. They exhibit various forms of deformation, which can be attributed to factors such as diseases, cultural practices, post-burial lithostatic pressure, and life history events. Particularly significant are intentionally deformed skulls, with examples, albeit in small numbers, found throughout Southwest Asia, not to mention the Iranian Plateau. However, these skulls have not received adequate attention in Iran due to problems such as focusing on other research priorities during excavations and the imbalance in the analysis of the various types of excavation findings. Examples of such skulls have been unearthed from the Neolithic sites in the Central Zagros. Recently, excavations at Tol-e Chega Sofla in the Zohreh Plain (Behbahan, Khuzestan) have yielded thirteen skull specimens with deformed proportions in a relatively well-preserved state. Hence, there is an excellent opportunity to study such skulls within the context of the Iranian Plateau. The study of the deformed skulls of Chega Sofla reveals similarities in the methods of skull deformation with the other areas of Southwest Asia. At Tol-e Chega Sofla, the practice of skull deformation using bandages is evident, along with various other traditions of cranial modification. The BG1 mass grave samples show similarities with the Ali Kosh and Seyh Hüyük skulls, while the BG6.1 specimen does not resemble any of the BG1 mass grave skulls and is similar to the modified skull of Burial no.5 in Chagha Sefid. It is worth mentioning that unintentional skull deformation, resulting in the flattening of some parts of the occipital bone, has also been observed in Chega Sofla.
Keywords: Modified Skulls, Chega Sofla Cemetery, Osteology, Prehistory, Iranian Plateau.
Introduction
Skull deformation means distortion of the natural growth pattern of different parts of the baby’s skull through external force (Alt et al., 1999). Intentional skull deformation has occurred in both the ancient world and in recent centuries on all continents. For example, in Oceania and Australia, some deformed skulls are about 13,000 years old (Brown, 1981; and Durband, 2008). Skull defomation has also been documented both in archaeological evidence and ethnographic studies (Dingwall, 1931). According to some researchers, the skulls of Neanderthals numbers 1 and 5 in Shanidar Cave have been intentionally deformed (Trinkaus, 1982). Some researchers also believe that cranial deformation has a history spanning 10,000 years in the Americas (Tiesler, 2014: 163). Maya people (Joyce, 1914: 295), the Mangbetu Tribe in eastern Uganda (Burrows, 1898: 95), and even Hawaiian people (Cheever, 1856: 81), have practiced this tradition.
In Southwest Asia, deformed skulls were unearthed in the site such as Cayonu, Bouqras, Shanidar, Jericho, Khirokitia, Byblos, Seyh Höyük, Arpachiyah, Değirmentepe, and Eridu (Angel, 1953; Ferembach, 1985; 1978; Kiszely, 1978; Kiszely, 1978; Meiklejohn et al., 1992; Molleson and Campbell, 1995; Özbek, 1974a and 2001; Şenyürek and Tunakan, 1951 and Vallois, 1937). On the Iranian plateau, several sites have shown examples of intentional skull deformation. These sites include Ganj Dareh (7500 -6500 BC), Ali Kosh (eighth millennium), Seh Gabi, Tepe Ghenil (late eighth to early sixth millennium), Chogha Mish (Middle Susiana and Late Middle Susiana), Abdolhosein and Chagha Sefid (the White Phase; Delougaz and Kantor, 1996; Hole, 1977; Hole et al., 1969; Hours et al., 1994; Lambert, 1979; and Meiklejohn et al., 1992). Unfortunately, these specimens have never been studied properly. However, years after the excavation of Tepe Ali Kosh, one of the deformed skulls from that site was reviewed (Niknami et al., 2011); the results of which remain debatable. During the renewed excavations in Ali Kosh back in 2017, several other deformed skulls were reported (Soltysiak and Darabi, 2017). However, things were a little bit different for Ganj Dareh. Human skeletons obtained from Ganj Dareh were studied in 1980 in the framework of a PhD dissertation (Lambert, 1980). The issue of the cranial deformity was briefly addressed by Lambert in 1979 (Lambert, 1979). In the present study, the biocultural-anthropological approaches are used to compare the deformed skulls of Chega Sofla with the other deformed skulls known from Southwest Asia.
Identified Traces
The deformed skulls of Chega Sofla show annular deformation, characterized by elongation of the skull. In this case, the frontal and occipital bones are affected by external forces by bandaging or similar methods in the deformation process and have been moved away from their regular growth pattern. Some of the skulls of the BG1 Tomb show similarities with the Ali Kosh’s specimen (Hole et al., 1969: Plate 12) and, to some extent, with the Seyh Höyük specimen No. 4 (Yenyürek and Tunakan, 1951: 447–451). The BG6.1 sample is similar to the sample No. 5 from Chagha Sefid (Hole, 1977: Plates 30 & 31). However, in sample No. 5 from the Chagha Sefid, the severity of skull deformation is higher than that of sample BG6.1.
In comparison with the types introduced by Özbek, it must be acknowledged that the Chega Sofla’s skulls do not comply with the definitions of any of the types. In Özbek Type B, for instance, the applied bandages are parallel to each other. The deformation of this type in some details, such as the depression of the occipital bone and the degree of curvature of the frontal bone, show differences with the Chega Sofla specimens. Also, in type B, the curvature of the frontal bone is higher than similar samples in Chega Sofla. On the other hand, the type A is similar to some of the Tepe Abdul Hosein skulls. The applied bandages form an angle of nearly 45 degrees with each other, are characterized by two depressions in the frontal bone and the area around Bregma (Özbek, 1974a: 476). 
Conclusion
Thirteen deformed skulls have been recovered during excavations at Chega Sofla Cemetery. All the skulls except one (BG1.2) have been intentionally deformed. In the unintentionally-defomed sample, parts of the occipital bone are flattened. The intentionally deformed skulls show similarities in deformation methods with some other skulls from Southwest Asia. In these samples, bands or similar tools have been used. The bandage applies to the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones. Eventually, the skull grows toward the sagittal suture, and the parietal bones on either side of the calvaria become more elongated than usual.
Meanwhile, the frontal and occipital bones in Tol-e Chega Sofla have lost their arches, and the arc length approach to chord length. However, the extent and severity of cranial deformity in BG1 mass grave specimens are different. On the other hand, the deformed skull of the BG6 mass grave shows specific differences from the deformed skulls of the BG1 grave. However, based on the findings of excavations at Chega Sofla Cemetery, the Authors believe there are two distinct traditions of deformation (until now). In the tradition of the BG1 Tomb, there are similarities to some of the skulls from Ali Kosh and Seyh Höyük. Still, in the case represented only by BG6.1, there are similarities with the skull of burial No. 5 in Chagha Sefid. Continued excavations at Tol-e Chega Sofla will shed more light on this issue. 

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Volume 14, Issue 40
June 2024
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