Introduction and Review of Newly-Found Pahlavi Inscriptions in Teymareh, Golpayegan

Abstract
The petroglyphs located in Teymareh are recognized as one of the most significant and extensive collections of rock art in Iran. Among the various motifs present, signs and linear inscriptions stand out, with Pahlavi inscriptions being a notable subset. A total of fifteen Pahlavi inscriptions have been documented within the petroglyphs of Teymareh in Golpayegan. This article presents, for the first time, the introduction of six new Pahlavi inscriptions discovered during the authors’ recent field research in the Qarqab, Esfajerd, and Kucherey sites. The analysis, translation, and interpretation of these inscriptions raise two pertinent questions: Is there a conceptual relationship between these new inscriptions and the existing Pahlavi inscriptions in Teymareh? Furthermore, how do the themes of these inscriptions correlate with the natural and cultural landscape of the area? The inscriptions predominantly address the theme of “water,” with the term “Zehab” frequently appearing throughout. According to the Pahlavi Dictionary, “river” is the most prevalent interpretation of Zehab. This terminology is intrinsically linked to the region’s natural environment and its proximity to water sources, as well as the locations of the petroglyphs found in these areas. It is plausible that these inscriptions served to indicate the availability of water resources, particularly for travelers and nomadic groups. Furthermore, the significance of water and the historical narratives associated with it are deeply embedded in the oral traditions of the local populace. Collectively, these factors underscore the vital importance of water to both indigenous and nomadic communities, particularly during the late Sassanid and early Islamic periods. This research was conducted through a descriptive-analytical approach, utilizing surveys, field interviews, and library research.
Keywords: Petroglyph, Pahlavi Inscription, Teymareh, Golpayegan, Zehab.
 
Introduction
The Teymareh petroglyphs are extensively located across the present-day provinces of Isfahan, Markazi, and Luristan. A total of over 36,500 petroglyphs have been cataloged within the Teymareh’s Golpayegan collection, which encompasses thirty-two distinct sites (Jamali 2023: 73). These petroglyphs were primarily produced through hammering techniques and span various historical periods. The majority depict narrative scenes, with predominant themes including hunting, human conflict, representations of the natural environment, and ritualistic practices. In addition to these narrative elements, the collection also features various signs and lines, which are significant for understanding the linguistic and cultural contexts of the petroglyphs. The Teymareh petroglyphs exhibit inscriptions in Pahlavi, Arabic, Persian, and certain Hebrew scripts. This article focuses on the analysis of the Pahlavi inscriptions found within these petroglyphs. A total of fifteen Pahlavi inscriptions have been documented in the collection from the Golpayegan collection of Teymareh. Of these, nine have been previously presented and examined in separate studies (Jamali, 2014: 213-219; Bashash Kanzaq, 2011: 88). In the current article, we will present and interpret six newly-discovered inscriptions from Teymareh’s Golpayegan collection, which were identified between 2008 and 2022, marking their inaugural introduction in this context.
The research inquiries are as follows: First, what is the translation and primary significance of this collection of inscriptions, and how do they relate to other Pahlavi inscriptions found in Teymareh? Second, can a substantial relationship be identified between these inscriptions and the natural as well as cultural environment of the area?
Research Method: In this study, data collection was conducted in the field through photographic documentation and the development of graphic illustrations. The texts were read and translated using the Pahlavi Dictionary, referencing two primary sources: “Mac Kenzie” and “Farah Vashi.” By utilizing library research, investigating the oral traditions of the indigenous population, and analyzing the characteristics of the landscape along with other motifs present at these locations, we were able to conduct a thorough analysis of the inscriptions. This research is categorized as descriptive-analytical in nature.
This article aims to present, analyze, and interpret the significance of six previously unexamined Pahlavi inscriptions from Teymareh’s Golpayegan collection. Additionally, we will explore the parallels between these new inscriptions and earlier ones. Furthermore, we will investigate how the meanings of these inscriptions correspond with the region’s landscape, environmental features, cultural attributes, and other petroglyphs.
Identified Traces 
Since 2007, Mohsen Jamali has successfully identified a total of thirteen Pahlavi inscriptions in the Teymareh’s collection of Golpayegan. When combined with the two previously recognized inscriptions, this brings the total to fifteen. A comprehensive description of the nine earlier inscriptions can be found in the publication “Golpayegan Petroglyphs: The Passage for History.” The inscriptions frequently contain brief terms that pertain to water. It is plausible that these served as indicators of water sources within the vicinity. Nonetheless, it is essential to acknowledge the significance and influence of water on human existence, particularly in regions where water is scarce.
The inscriptions of Esfajerd 1 and 2 exactly mean “Zehab Mehman”. Zehab Mehman means a pleasant spring. Currently, only a few seasonal springs flow in this area. Qarqab 1 and 3 inscriptions are also located near Golpayegan river, several seasonal springs and Tang-e Qarqab. In these two inscriptions, the word “Zehab” is also mentioned. In one of these two inscriptions, the word “Kenaroud” is also written in Persian. In the Qarqab inscription 2, a phrase similar to “Mah Farn Goshnasb” is probably mentioned.
Located near the Golpayegan river, along with its streams and seasonal springs, are the Pahlavi inscriptions of Kucherey. It is noteworthy that the inscription includes the term “Zehab.” In many of the inscriptions presented in this article, the words “Zehab” and “Water” are prominently featured, indicating that a detailed analysis of the cultural and geographical environment surrounding these petroglyphs could uncover additional important aspects.
In the dictionary of Pahlavi language, in two sources “Mac Kenzie” and “Farah Vashi”, the words Zehab and Zehabak are given as follows.
Conclusion 
Among the significant archaeological findings in Teymareh, the Pahlavi inscriptions stand out prominently. A total of fifteen such inscriptions have been cataloged at Golpayegan’s collection. This article presents an introduction and analysis of six newly identified inscriptions, which are being reported for the first time. Notably, the inscriptions numbered 10, 11, 12, 14, and 15 prominently feature terms associated with water, specifically the term “Zehab.” The term “river” is one of the interpretations of water, and in the Pahlavi inscriptions from Esfajerd, the term “Mehman” appears alongside the word for water. Consequently, the interpretation of these two Pahlavi inscriptions from Esfajerd may be rendered as “seasonal river.” Looking at the perspective of these inscriptions, we realize that all of them are placed next to permanent and seasonal streams and water sources. Teymareh means the place where the water of the rivers gathers. It seems that these texts could have marked the presence of water sources in the region, especially for passers-by and nomadic tribes. All these cases show the special place of water among the people of this region. All indications point to this area having been of considerable prominence and significance in the late Sassanid era. The discovery of fifteen rock inscriptions in Pahlavi script further corroborates this hypothesis.