The Study of Archaeometallurgy in Southeastern Iran During the Bronze Age: Evidence from Tappeh Graziani, Sistan

Author

Associate Professor, Department of Archeology, Faculty of Art and Architecture Zabol University, Zabol, Iran.

10.22084/nb.2024.28318.2628

Abstract

Abstract
The processes of mining, metal melting, and the creation of metal artifacts represent a significant intersection of industry and art that has captivated researchers throughout history. The Iranian Plateau has historically been a pivotal area for these activities and continues to be influential in the field. Excavations in southeastern Iran, particularly at sites such as Tape Yahya, Tel Iblis, and Shahr-i Sokhta, indicate that the production and trade of metal objects have thrived since the 4th millennium BCE. Notably, during the third millennium BCE, the Hirmand civilization, with Shahr-i Sokhta as its focal point, emerged as a prominent center for the production of copper and bronze artifacts. Archaeological investigations have successfully pinpointed various manufacturing locations. To educate archaeology students at Zabul University, the author conducted excavations at Tappe Graziani over three seasons. The objective was to gain insights into the social, economic, and cultural attributes of the region during the Bronze Age. The excavations yielded evidence of industrial production. This article endeavors to examine the archaeometallurgical techniques prevalent in southeastern Iran, drawing upon the findings from this excavation. In line with this objective, the article poses the following questions: What was the significance of Tappeh Graziani in the metallurgical sphere of Bronze Age? Additionally, at what scale—industrial, semi-industrial, or domestic—was metallurgy practiced at this site? Throughout the excavation, a variety of metal artifacts and slags were uncovered. Given that metal slags are typically associated with production facilities and are not intended for trade, the slags found at this site can be interpreted as indicators of metal production. It appears that while metal extraction occurred in a different location, the actual fabrication of metal objects took place at Graziani.
Keywords: Hirmand’s Civilization, Bronze Age, Specialization, Archaeometallurgy.
 
Introduction
In antiquity, metals were regarded as valuable commodities, utilized in the creation of decorative items and weaponry, including maces and bayonets. Consequently, numerous societies endeavored to advance this industry, focusing on the production of metal objects as well as their trade and exchange. During the Bronze Age, the interactions between Central Asia and Mesopotamia were significantly shaped by these commercial and cultural ties. Additionally, the Hirmand civilization emerged as a pivotal center, facilitating connections among these regions and serving as a productive intermediary.
The unearthing of metallurgical collections and pertinent evidence, including artifacts and remnants from metal extraction and production, has sparked increased scholarly focus on ancient metallurgy within the Iranian Plateau. This heightened interest seeks to clarify the processes and historical development of metallurgical techniques. However, despite the pressing need for in-depth investigations of metal artifacts from prehistoric Iran to advance our understanding of ancient metallurgy in Southwest Asia, research efforts have been notably scarce. These findings have played a crucial role in the creation and manufacturing of metal items, particularly those composed of copper and bronze. Throughout three seasons of archaeological digs at Tappeh Graziani of Sistan, numerous metal objects and slags were discovered, and their examination could significantly enhance our insights into Bronze Age metallurgy in West Asia. In this light, this article aims to present the metal artifacts discovered at Tappeh Graziani. The research seeks to see whether this site was a significant center for metal production during the Bronze Age within the cultural context of the Hirmand civilization. Given the critical role of southeastern Iran in the study of ancient mining and metallurgy, this investigation addresses several key questions: What was the significance of Tappeh Graziani in the Bronze Age metallurgy sector? Which metals have been identified at this location? To what extent was metalworking practiced at this site? The initial focus will be on the site and its associated metal artifacts. Subsequently, the metallurgy of southeastern Iran will be examined considering the findings and analyses conducted on these materials.
 
Identified Traces
Tappeh Graziani is situated in the southern plain of Sistan, approximately 56.6 kilometers south of Zabul and 10 kilometers to the east of Shahr-i Sokhta. The site encompasses an oval area measuring 220 by 160 meters, oriented in a northwest-southeast direction, resembling several interconnected stacks at its center. A notable concentration of kiln welds is found on the northern slope, indicative of a square kiln structure. The highest elevation in this region reaches about 10 meters above the surrounding terrain, with an overall height of 474 meters above sea level. Covering an area of roughly three hectares, it ranks among the largest satellite sites associated with Shahr-i Sokhta. This location was initially recognized during investigations conducted by an Italian delegation and was subsequently examined during an archaeological survey of Sistan and Baluchestan Province. 
The identification of kilns suggests that pottery production at this site was conducted in a specialized manner. Additionally, the discovery of a metallurgical mold and metal slag indicates that metalworking activities were also present. Over the course of three excavation seasons, six trenches were dug in various locations across the site. The earliest artifacts were found in Trench 1, where the pottery resembles that of phases 7 and 8 from Shahr-i Sokhta. Subsequent findings included pottery akin to phases 6, 5, 4, and 3, as well as materials from Shahr-i Sokhta phases 2 and 3. Additionally, pottery resembling that of Shahr-i Sokhta 4 was found in trench 3 and the upper strata. Absolute dating indicates a timeframe of 2860 to 2300 BC for this area. During three excavation seasons at Graziani, a total of 48 metal artifacts were unearthed. These artifacts can be classified into nine distinct categories, which include slag, mirrors, daggers, rods, needles, fishing hooks, metal balls, metal seals, and items of indeterminate function. All artifacts are composed of copper and arsenic alloys.
 
Discussion 
Currently, the southeastern region of Iran holds the predominant position in the nation’s metal mining sector. The minerals obtained from this area undergo processing to yield various metals such as iron, copper, and zinc. Additionally, this region hosts numerous metallurgical industries that contribute to employment opportunities and economic development. The existence of copper deposits in this area appears to have significantly influenced the establishment and growth of metalworking practices. Artifacts made of copper and bronze were crafted in this cultural region during the 4th and 3rd millennia BCE.
To date, numerous ancient mining sites have been discovered in regions such as Sistan and Baluchestan, South Khorasan, Kerman, and East Fars. Excavations at Tol-e Malyan have revealed evidence of metalworking in layers 2 and 3. According to Sumner, industrial activities were conducted in both workshops and domestic settings within this site. This phenomenon is also observable in the Hirmand civilization area. Certain locations in the southern plains of Sistan exhibit a fully industrial character, while others, like Graziani, likely engaged in metalworking on a domestic and part-time industrial basis. 
This site illustrates the concluding phases of smelting and metal extraction from ore, alongside the production of copper-arsenic alloys, as evidenced by archaeological research. Specifically, the utilization of copper-arsenic alloys is highlighted. The metal artifacts produced in this area represent some of the most crucial archaeological evidence for exploring connections with regions such as southwest Iran, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia. Furthermore, this research delves into various economic and social dimensions of these interregional connections. Laboratory analyses indicate that during the Bronze Age, tin gradually supplanted arsenic in the creation of bronze artifacts in locations such as Susa and Mesopotamia to the west, as well as Mundigak to the east. However, the analysis of metals from the Graziani Tappeh suggests that the inhabitants of the Hirmand civilization continued to employ copper-arsenic alloys throughout the third millennium BC. This phenomenon is also observed at other archaeological sites in southeastern Iran, including Shahr-i Sokhta.
 
Conclusion
Tappeh Graziani represents one of the most important satellite sites associated with Shahr-i Sokhta. Archaeological investigations indicate that this site exhibited a format similar to that of Shahr-i Sokhta II and ultimately ended like Shahr-i Sokhta IV. The findings from this site, including architectural remains and various artifacts, suggest that it was not only a location for human habitation but also a center for semi-industrial activities. It is likely that a significant portion of the community’s endeavors revolved around the production of pottery and metal items. The discovery of pottery kilns confirms that ceramic production occurred at this site, while numerous metal artifacts, such as seals, daggers, needles, rods, mirrors, and metal slag, were also unearthed. The presence of slag and a smelting crucible further indicates that metalworking activities were conducted in this region. Slag typically lacks economic and commercial significance, which raises questions about the rationale behind transporting slag from another location to this site. The evidence of metal smelting suggests that the extraction of metal occurred elsewhere. In this area, metal was re-melted to create various artifacts. The slag discovered here is indicative of the remelting process employed for casting purposes. Laboratory analyses of the metals from this site indicate that artisans utilized copper and arsenic in the production of bronze alloys, although tin has been documented as a component in bronze alloys from other regions.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

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pazhoheshha-ye Bastan shenasi Iran
Volume 14, Issue 43
2025
Pages 65-89

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