Reevaluating the Architectural Pattern of Ritual, Ceremonial Spaces of the Sassanian Era, With an Emphasis on the Sacred Element of Water

Abstract
The architecture of the Sassanid period gave shape to monuments dedicated to different activities, such as royal ceremonies and rituals. Significant works from this era include palaces, fire temples, and Anahita temples, which often feature the sacred elements of water and fire. Although studies have addressed architectural elements related to water and fire in Sassanid fire and Anahita temples, less attention has been given to the spatial organization of Sassanid ceremonial and ritual complexes in relation to water. This research aims to analyze the architectural model of Sassanid ritual and ceremonial spaces with a focus on water. Specifically, it seeks to answer two important questions: Is there a consistent architectural framework associated with water sources—such as sacred springs and rivers—within Sassanid complexes? Additionally, have key components of Sassanid architecture been influenced by water sources within the overall spatial composition? To address these questions, the research employs a historical-interpretive approach, combined with documentary and field studies, to examine notable Sassanid ritual and ceremonial buildings. These include fire temples, palaces, and hybrid structures (such as the Sassanid complexes at Firouzabad and Takht-e Soleyman), as well as palaces, cities, and associated reliefs. The interpretation of reliefs as readable spaces is based on the concept of human experience through symbolic elements in architecture. The arrangement of various building components is then analyzed in relation to the organization of water resources. The findings reveal that the complexes studied are situated near water sources, with spatial and settlement organization structured around a central axis focused on water. This centrality influences the orientation and placement of key architectural elements, such as iwans, in relation to other important elements such as domed halls, secondary iwans, and main portals. The research presents details of recurring patterns that emphasize the role of water as a central feature in Sassanid buildings, drawing from historical, structural, and spatial analyses.
Keywords: Ritual and Ceremonial Spaces, Sassanid Collections, Sacred Element of Water, Palaces and Cities, Bas-Reliefs.
 
Introduction
Sassanids developed architectural complexes that, beyond accommodating the king’s presence in governmental and ceremonial contexts, were deeply connected to the sacred elements of water and fire, which were central to Zoroastrian beliefs. Within these complexes, water not only symbolized the ritual significance of the goddess Anahita but also served as a primary organizing feature for surrounding spaces. This study explores various Sassanid complexes, including palaces, fire temples, and cities with their associated palaces, emphasizing the organizing role of water in these structures. To guide this investigation, two main questions were posed: How did water influence the spatial organization and layout of structures (such as palaces, fire temples, and reliefs) and cities during the Sassanid period? What architectural patterns in these spaces (palaces, fire temples, and reliefs) reveal their classification as ritual and ceremonial structures, and how do Sassanid cities align in relation to importance of water?
Method: This study employed a qualitative and inductive approach with an interpretive-historical strategy. Information was primarily gathered from library sources, complemented by field visits to relevant structures. During these visits, data were collected through videos, photos, and sketches of either intact buildings or their remnants. The research findings were based on a comparative analysis of data from library research, archival studies, and field observations.
 
Background
Noteworthy scholars have touched upon the significance of water in Sassanid history. For instance, Naser Nowruzzadeh Chegini, Ahmad Salehi Kakhki, and Hossamuddin Ahmadi highlighted the reliance of the Firozabad plain’s social life on water flow, with the Sassanids strategically constructing their buildings in this area based on this knowledge. Milad Vandai studied the connection between Anahita and reliefs from that period, concluding that sculpting reliefs alongside rivers or lakes aimed to honor and worship the deity Anahita alongside Ahura Mazda. Hamed Mohammadpour, Elham Androodi, and Mohammad Hasan Talebian noted the Takht-Neshin building in Ardeshir Khoreh, designed as a continual hearth and linked to a water basin, as a prime example showcasing a typical pattern in the formation of ritual complexes during the Sassanid era. Through its association with water and fire, Sassanid architecture could serve as a site for venerating the goddess Anahita in a ceremonial ritual complex by being adjacent to a water basin and fire pit. Foreign researchers have also examined the role of water in the Sassanid era. Sofya Montakhab focused on water management in irrigation policies during that time, emphasizing structures related to water management and water rights while exploring the connection between water and the Zoroastrian religion. Remy Boucharlat and colleagues extensively discussed Iran’s ancient irrigation system, highlighting its emphasis on irrigation practices over ritualistic functions.
 
Discussion
Within Sassanid ritual and ceremonial complexes, gardens that included water were likely pivotal elements, yet the specific layout and design of these gardens require more archaeological exploration. Generally, after the garden, water features that symbolized the goddess Anahita were followed by an intermediary space that directed towards the main structure. The elevation then ascended through steps and platforms, culminating in the primary entrance (iwan) to the edifice. Finally, a fire altar or a domed, cruciform space was positioned beyond the porch. This arrangement was observed across the selected study sites:
City of Gur: At the heart of Gur, a complex featuring a throne hall and a cruciform hall with a quadrangular layout, alongside a man-made water pond, was constructed to support water and fire rituals. Two additional water basins were located on the eastern side. Remnants of these structures are still identifiable, with a staircase leading from the water feature to the cruciform building entrance. Additionally, large gardens extended from the city center along radial axes up to 5.7 km beyond the city walls.
Firouzabad Complex: This Sassanid complex was positioned within a garden of willow and plane trees. A pond on the northeast side preceded the stairs leading to an iwan at the building’s entrance. Behind the iwan stood a square building crowned by a dome supported by four columns.
Bishapur: The layout of Bishapur diverged slightly, incorporating water within two areas of the complex. A temple dedicated to Anahita featured water within its design, and a spring on the eastern side flowed between the ccropolis fortress and the cruciform palace, feeding a large pool. Uniquely, Bishapur’s mosaic iwan was aligned parallel to the cruciform building rather than serving as its entrance. The courtyards and royal enclosure occupied the central garden area.
Takht-e Soleyman: A lake, positioned to the south, was historically around four meters lower than its current level, with sacred structures built directly in front of it. The fire temple’s axis passed through the lake’s center, with the main porch facing the lake and the fire altar beyond it. The garden surrounded both the lake and fire temple.
Khosrow Palace: On the eastern side of this complex, a pool preceded the entrance gate and a domed space in front of the building. The entire structure was situated within an expansive garden.
Spatial Pattern of the Taq-e Bostan Bas-Relief: Taq-e Bostan consists of a single arched recess bas-relief with a pond situated in front of it. While this arrangement may not form a traditional enclosed architectural space, some architectural experts argue that spatial experience is not always defined by walls alone. Here, the Bostan arch, its recess, symbolic relief motifs, and the pond combine to form a striking ritual space. This spatial arrangement aligns closely with other Sassanid complexes, where the water garden—symbolizing Anahita—leads through an intermediate space and ascends to the primary area, where the bas-relief is carved.
 
Conclusion
Orientation: Water significantly influenced the orientation of Sassanid ritual complexes. In each case, the main entrance (iwan) faces northeast, east, or south, which is notable since Zoroastrian texts like Vandidad highlight these directions as respected and auspicious.
Axis and Hierarchy: Water also established a central axis and hierarchy, shaping the spatial organization of the complex’s main elements—such as the garden, water features (spring, river, or pond), porch, and fire altar. These features align along this axis, creating a coherent spatial flow.
Elevation and Visual Dominance: The elevation of palaces, fire temples, and reliefs above the water level not only provides a commanding view but also integrates the water landscape prominently within the overall environment.
In conclusion, water serves not only as a ritual symbol of Anahita in these complexes but also as a defining axis that organizes the entire space. This water-centered design underscores the vision of Sassanid architects and urban planners in structuring complexes around the sacred element of water, creating landscapes that are water-dominant in both form and symbolism.