چاه جم، محوطه ی پارینه سنگی در جنوب دامغان

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 دانشیار گروه باستان شناسی دانشگاه تربیت مدرس

2 دانشجوی دکتری باستان شناسی دانشگاه تربیت مدرس

چکیده

در نتیجه‌ی بررسی‌های باستان‌شناختیِ دو دهه‌ی اخیر در فلات‌مرکزی ایران، شماری محوطه‌ی پارینه‌سنگی کشف شده است که تعدادی از آن‌ها در استان سمنان امروزی جای می‌گیرند. تحولات فرهنگی شمال فلات‌مرکزی در طول آخرین چرخه‌ی یخچالی نسبت به زاگرس کمتر شناخته شده و به‌نظر می‌رسد در طول دوران پلیئستوسن جدید این پهنه هم به‌عنوان کوریدور برای گسترش قلمرو زیستی گروه‌های انسانی و هم به‌عنوان محل زندگی استفاده می‌شده است. بررسی شهرستان دامغان به‌دلیل مبهم بودن وضعیت این پهنه، سنجش موقعیت راهبردی آن در فرضیات و نیز بررسی گوناگونیِ راهبردهای سازشی در چشم‌اندازهای باز، خشک و نیمه‌خشک در فلات ایران انجام شد. پرسش‌های پژوهش شامل آن بود که آیا می‌توان محوطه‌هایِ بازی مانند میرک، دلازیان و صوفی‌آباد در سمنان-سرخه را در بخش‌های شرقی‌تری چون دامغان-شاهرود نیز یافت؟ و اگر آری، آیا از نظر زمانی قابل‌مقایسه با محوطه‌های گروه اول خواهد بود؟ در نتیجه‌ی بررسی‌های میدانی، محوطه‌ی روبازی در جنوب شهر دامغان و شمال‌غرب کویر حاجی‌علیقلی (چاه‌جم) یافت شد و «چاه‌جم» نام گرفت. پژوهش برروی یافته‌ها به‌روش‌های کتابخانه‌ای، بررسی میدانی و آزمایشگاهی انجام پذیرفت. در سطح محوطه‌ی چاه‌جم، گونه‌های مختلف دست‌ساخته‌های سنگی در سطحی وسیع (حدود 2×9 کیلومتر) پراکنده شده‌اند. شواهد فعالیت‌های انسانی در چاه‌جم و در پهنه‌ای که امروزه اقلیم خشک دارد، احتمالاً از شرایط متفاوت اقلیمی/محیطی در دوره‌ی پلیئستوسن جدید در بخش مرکزی فلات ایران حکایت می‌کند. این شواهد باز هم نشان‌داد که می‌توان بخش شمالی فلات‌مرکزی را به‌عنوان کوریدور و محل زندگی گروه‌های انسانی در پلیئستوسن جدید در نظر گرفت. براساس گونه‌شناسی دست‌ساخته‌های سنگی به‌نظر می‌رسد دوره‌ی اصلی حضور انسان در چشم‌انداز چاه‌جم، دوره‌ی پارینه‌سنگی میانی باشد؛ بنابراین، از نظر گاهنگاری، قابل‌مقایسه با محوطه‌های روباز کشف شده در موقعیت سمنان-سرخه است.

کلیدواژه‌ها

موضوعات

عنوان مقاله [English]

Chah-e Jam, a Paleolithic Site on the South of Damqan

نویسندگان [English]

  • hamed vahdati nasab 1
  • Seyyed Milad Hashemi 2
1 university
2 university
چکیده [English]

As a result of archaeological investigations of the last two decades in the Northern part of the Iranian Central Desert, numbers of Paleolithic localities have been discovered. The condition of this part of the Iranian Plateau in the context of the Late Pleistocene archaeology has been vague before such discoveries. The presence of two distinct geomorphological formations of desert and mountains in close proximity has created a unique geography in the region, with several corridors lying between them, which could have been used by Pleistocene populations. The width of these corridors has been subjected to constant changes through expansions and contractions of the Iranian Central Desert. Aside from two potential coastal routes one in the north and the other, south of the Iranian Plateau, the northern fringes of the Iranian Central Desert has been recently identified as the third dispersal route, presenting accessible routes for hominins dispersing out of Africa to eastward. In addition to the Paleolithic localities discovered from the western (the modern-day provinces of Zanjān and Qazvin), central (Tehrān province), and southern (Isfahān modern province) parts of the center of Iranian Plateau, some other Paleolithic sites have been discovered which are located in the modern province of Semnān; including Mirak, Delāzian, and Sūfi-Ābād. One of the newly-discovered open-air sites of the Northern part of the Iranian Central Desert is Chāh-e Jam. It is located about 300 km east of Tehrān, south of the modern city of Dāmqān and north of Hāji Ali-qoli (Chāh-e Jam) playa. Geomorphological studies indicate that the Iranian Central Desert has previously consisted of several lakes, the remains of them are still visible in form of numerous playas across the desert. It seems that the Hāji Ali-qoli (Chāh-e Jam) playa have had a key role in the formation of Chah-e Jam Paleolithic site throughout the late Pleistocene. Chāh-e Jam has been discovered during an archaeological expedition in the summer of 2014, directing by Vahdati Nasab. The expedition was part of a long-term archaeological project known as “Paleolithic surveys of the northern central desert of Iran”. The project’s area of survey begins from the boundaries of the border of the modern provinces of Tehran-Semnan west to Khār-Tūrān National Park in the east. Chāh-e Jam lies within the eastern part of the region of study. The Northern edge of the Iranian Central Desert has been subject to several seasons of systematic Paleolithic surveys from 2009, all have been directed by by Vahdati Nasab. The scattes surface lithics of the site widely but thinly, throughout an area as large as about 18 km2(9×2km). The discovery of Chāh-e Jam implies the likeliness that the climatic condition of the late Pleistocene was rather different from today’s arid condition. A total of 525 lithic artifacts were collected during the 2014 field mission. Regarding to lithics’ raw material, various rocks with volcanic origins (i.e., igneous rocks) make over 50% of the assemblage, while the other half is made on chert, sandstone, and siltstone. No outcrops of chert and tuff were seen in the area. The majority of the assemblage demonstrate signs of weathering, and one piece represents evidence of heavy water erosion. Techno-typological analysis of lithic assemblage recovered from Chāh-e Jam indicates an abundance of levallois technology and numerous retouched tool types (e.g., Levallois points, and all types of convergent scrapers), leading the site to be attributed principally to the Middle Paleolithic period. The presence of some typological elements of later periods indicates that the site has been inhabited during Upper/Epipaleolithic periods as well. This site, along with other Middle Paleolithic occupations of this landscape, indicate that climatic conditions of Late Pleistocene were significantly different to present, and the presence of playa lakes and associated vegetation permitted hominin populations to occupy the currently arid areas.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • The Northern Fringes of the Iranian Central Desert
  • Chah-e Jam
  • middle paleolithic
  • Lithics

مراجع

- بیگلری، فریدون، 1382الف، «گزارش بررسی مقدماتی محوطه‌های پارینه‌سنگی منطقه‌ی کاشان»، در: نقره کاران سیلک، به‌کوشش: صادق ملک‌شهمیرزادی و حمید فهیمی، صص: 168- 151, پژوهشکده‌ی باستان‌شناسی، سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی کشور، تهران.
- بیگلری، فریدون، 1382ب، «نرگه: نخستین شواهد پارینه‌سنگی میانی در دشت قزوین، شمال‌غربی فلات‌مرکزی»، گزارش‌های باستان‌شناسی، شماره‌ی 2، صص: 171- 165، پژوهشکده‌ی باستان‌شناسی، سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی کشور، تهران.
- ترکمندی، شیرین، 1390، «مطالعه فناوری ساخت و ریخت‌شناسی دست‌سازه‌های سنگی محوطه‌ی پارینه سنگی میرک، در جنوب شهر سمنان»، پایان‌نامه‌ی دوره‌ی کارشناسی‌ارشد در رشته‌ی باستان‌شناسی؛ گرایش پیش‌ازتاریخ، دانشگاه تربیت‌مدرس (منتشر نشده).
- جاجرمی، فهیمه، 1394، «اثرات تغییر اقلیمی بر تطور چند جانبه‌ی انسان مدرن»، پایان‌نامه‌ی دوره‌ی کارشناسی‌ارشد در رشته‌ی باستان‌شناسی؛ گرایش پیش‌ازتاریخ، مؤسسه‌ی آموزش عالی مارلیک (منتشر نشده).
- عزالدین، حسین، 1378، پوشش گیاهی منطقه‌ی دامغان و شاهرود (طرح شناخت مناطق اکولوژیک کشور)، وزارت جهاد سازندگی، مؤسسه‌ی تحقیقات جنگل‌ها و مراتع کشور.
- قزلجه، رحمت، 1394، «تنوع ماده‌ی خام محوطه‌ی پارینه‌سنگی میانی چاه‌جم»، پایان‌نامه‌ی کارشناسی‌ارشد باستان‌شناسی، مؤسسه آموزش عالی مارلیک (منتشر نشده).
- وحدتی‌نسب، حامد، 1393، «گزارش فصل نخست بررسی‌های پارینه‌سنگی حاشیه‌ی شمالی کویر مرکزی، محدوده‌ی کویر چاه‌ جم، دامغان، سمنان»، پژوهشکده‌ی باستان‌شناسی(منتشر نشده).
- وحدتی‌نسب، حامد، روستایی کوروش، و رضوانی، حسن، 1386، «دلازیان (میرک 1)، شاهدی بر استقرار پارینه سنگی در حاشیه‌ی شمالی کویر مرکزی، استان سمنان»، نامه‌ی پژوهشگاه 20 و 21صص: 14-9.
- وحدتی‌نسب، حامد، و فیض، زینب، 1393، «بررسی و شناسایی محوطه‌های پارینه‌سنگی در حاشیه‌ی شمالی کویر مرکزی ایران در حد فاصل بین سمنان و سرخه»، مجموعه مقالات دوازدهمین گردهمایی سالانه‌ی باستان‌شناسی ایران، صص: 468-465.
- وحدتی‌نسب، حامد، و هاشمی، میلاد، 1394، «بررسی و شناسایی محوطه‌های پارینه‌سنگی در حاشیه‌ی شمالی دشت کویر مرکزی: شمال کویر چاه‌جم»، در: گزارش‌های چهاردهمین گردهمایی سالانه‌ی باستان‌شناسی ایران، به‌کوشش: حمیده چوبک، صص: 540-535، پژوهشکده‌ی باستان‌شناسی، سازمان میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری.
- هاشمی، میلاد، و وحدتی‌نسب، حامد، 1392، «قضیه‌ی کاهش و اهمیت آن در باستان‌شناسی (با نگاه به خراشنده‌های جانبی)»، مجله‌ی پژوهش‌های باستان‌شناسی مدرس، شماره‌ی 10 و 9 (سال پنجم)، صص: 37-18.
 
- Alerstam, T., & A. Hedenström, S. Kesson, 2003, “Long-distance migration: evolution and determinants”. Oikos 103: 247–260.
- Aleshire, P., 2008, Deserts (the extreme Earth). NY, Chelsea House.
- Alibeigi, S., & Khosravi, S., 2009, “Tepeh Khaleseh: A New Neolithic and Palaeolithic site in the Abharrud Basin in north-western Iran”, Antiquity 83 (319). Project Gallery.
- Andrefsky, W, Jr., 1994, “Raw Materian Availability and the Organization of Technology”, American Antiquity 59(1): 21-34.
- Arnell, N.W., 2006, Global impacts of abrupt climate change: an initial assessment, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research Working Paper 99.
- Bachhuber, F. W., 1992, “A pre-late Wisconsin paleolimnologic record from the Estancia Valley, central New Mexico”, In: The last Interglacial-glacial transition in North America, P.U. Clark & P.D. Lea (eds.), Pp. 289-308, Geological Society of America Special Paper 270.  
- Barnosky, A. D., (ed.), 2004, Biodiversity Response to Climate Change in the Middle Pleistocene: The Porcupine Cave Fauna from Colorado, University of California Press.
- Berillon, G., Asgari Khaneghah, A., Antoine, P., Bahain, J-J., Chevrier,  B., Zeitoun, V. et al., 2007, “Discovery of New Open-air Paleolithic Localities in Central Alborz, Northern Iran”, Journal of Human Evolution 52: 380-387.
- Biglari, F., Javeri, M. Mashkour, M. et al., 2009, “Test Excavations at the Middle Paleolithic Sites of Qaleh Bozi, Southwest of Central Iran, a Preliminary Report”, In: Iran Paleolithic, M. Otte, F. Biglari, and J. Jaubert (eds.), Proceedings of the XV World Congress (Lisbon, 4-9 September 2006), Pp. 29-38.
- Biglari, F., & Shidrang. S., 2006, “The Lower Paleolithic Occupation of Iran”,  Near Eastern Archaeology 69(3-4): 160-8.
- Binford, L., 1973, “Interassemblage variability: the Mousterian and the functional argument”, In: The Explanation of Culture Change: Models in prehistory, C. Renfrew (ed.), Pp. 227-254. University of Pittsburgh Press.
- Blythe, W. B., 1983, “The banker ponies of North Carolina and the Ghyben-Herzberg principle”, Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association 94(6): 63–72.
- Bretzke, K., Drechsler, P., Conard, N.J., 2012, “Water availability and landuse during the Upper and Epipaleolithic in southwestern Syria”, Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 2272-2279.
- Chang, L., Mak, M.C.K., Li, T., et al., 2011, “Cultural Adaptations to Environmental Variability: An Evolutionary Account of East-West Differences”, Educational Psychology Review 23: 99–129.
- Chevrier, B., Berillon, G. Asgari Khaneghah, A., 2010, “New Data on the Moghanak Prehistoric Site (Tehran province, Iran)”, Antiquity, Vol. 084, Iss. 325, Project Gallery.
- Committee on Abrupt Climate Change, 2002, Abrupt Climate Change: Inevitable surprises, National Research Council.
- Cooke, R.U., Warren, A. & Goudie, A., 1993, Desert Geomorphology, UCL Press.
- Debénath, A., & Dibble, H.L., 1994, Handbook of Paleolithic Typology, Vl. 1: Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Europe, The University of Pennsylvania Museum.
- Derevianko, A.P., Shunkov, M.V., (eds.), 2011, Characteristic Features of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition in Eurasia, Proceedings of the International Symposium "Characteristic Features of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition in Eurasia: Development of Culture and Evolution of Homo Genus", July 2011, Publishing Department of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS.
- Dibble, H.L., Schurmans, U., Iovita, R.P., McLaughlin, M.V., 2005, “Cortex Ratio as measure of hunter-gatherer mobility: methodological robustness, issues, and archaeological implications”, American Antiquity 70 (3): 545-560
- Downey, J. T., 2010, “Working With Expedient Lithic Technologies in the Northern Highlands of Peru”, vis-à-vis: Explorations in Anthropology 10 (2): 77–95.
- Dunkerley, D.L., 2011, “Desert Soils”, In: Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process, Form, and Change in Drylands, the 3rd ed., D.S. Thomas (ed.), Pp. 101-129. UK: Willey-Blackwell.
- Fernández, J.M.M., 2006, “Archaic Aurignacian lithic technology in Cueva Morín (Cantabria, Spain)”. In: Towards a Definition of the Aurignacian, Proceedings of the Symposium held in Lisbon, Portugal, June 2002, O. Bar-Yosef & J. Zilhão (eds.), Pp. 111-130. Lisboa: Instituto Português de Arqueologia.
- Finlayson, C., 2004, Neanderthals and Modern Humans: An Ecological and Evolutionary Perspective, New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Finlayson, C., 2016, The Improbable Primate: How Water Shaped Human Evolution, 2nd ed, Oxford University Press.
- Frison, G.C., 1979, “Observations on the Use of Stone Tools: Dulling of Working Edges on Some Chipped Stone Tools in Bison Butchering”, In: Lithic Use-Wear Analysis, B. Hayden (ed.), Pp. 259-268. NY: Academic Press.
- Gabler, R.E., Petersen, J.F. Trapasso, L.M. & Sack, D., 2009, Physical Geography, 9th ed. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.
- Gamble, L.H., 2005, “Culture and climate: reconsidering the effect of palaeoclimatic variability among Southern California huntergatherer societies”, World Archaeology 37(1): 92–108.
- Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G. & Smith, A.G., 2004, A Geologic Time Scale 2004, NY: Cambridge University Press.
- Hennigar, T.W., 1976, “Water resources and environmental geology of Sable Island, Nova Scotia”, N.S.: Water Planning and Management Division, Report no. 76-1.
- Hetherington, R., & Reid, R.G.B., 2010, The Climate Connection: climate change and modern human evolution, Cambridge University Press. 
- Heydari-Guran, S., Ghasidian, E. & Conard, N., 2014, “Middle Paleolithic Settlements on the Iranian Central Plateau”, In: Settlement Dynamics of the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age, Vol. IV, N. Conard, A. Delagnes (eds.). Pp. 171-203. Tübingen Publication in Prehistory.
- Hours, F., 1974, “Remarques sur l’utilisation de listes-types pour l’etude de Pal´eolithique sup´erieur et de l’Epipal´eolithique du Levant”, Paléorient 3: 3–18.
- Huggett, R.J., 2011, Fundamentals of Geomorphology, 3rd ed., Routledge, Taylor & Francis.
- Kalma, J.D., & Franks, S.W., 2005, “Rainfall in Arid and semi-Arid Regions”, In: Understanding Water in a Dry Environment: Hydrological Processes in Arid and Semi-arid Zones, I. Simmers (ed.), Pp. 15-63. Taylor & Francis.
- Kaptijn, E., 2009, Life on the Watershed: Reconstructing Subsistence in a Steppe Region Using Archaeological Survey: A Diachronic Perspective on Habitation in the Jordan Valley, Sidestone Press.
- Kehl, M., 2009, “Quaternary Climate change in Iran: the State of Knowledge”, Erdkunde 63 (1): 1-17.
- Konecky, B.L., Russell, J.M., Johnson, T.J., et al., 2011, “Atmospheric circulation patterns during late Pleistocene climate changes at Lake Malawi, Africa”, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 312: 318–326.
- Krinsley, D. B., 1970, A Geomophological and Paleoclimatological Study of the Playas of Iran, MA, Bedford, United States Air Force.
- Lahr, M. & Foley, R.A., 1994, “Multiple dispersals and modern Human origins”, Evolutionary Anthropology 3: 48–60.
- Laity, J.E., 2008, Deserts and Desert Environments, Wiley-Blackwell.
- Lovejoy, T.E. & Hannah, L., (eds.), 2006, Climate Change and Biodiversity, Yale University Press.
- M. Kapelle, van Vuuren, M.M.I. & BAAS, P., 1999, “Effects of climate change on biodiversity: a review and identification of key research issues”, Biodiversity and Conservation 8: 1383–1397.
- MacDonald, D.H., 2008, “The Role of Lithic Raw Material Availability and Quality in Determining Tool Kit Size, Tool Function, and Degree of Retouch: A Case Study from Skink Rockshelter (46NI445), West Virginia”,. In: Lithic Technology, W. Andrefsky, Jr. (ed.), Pp. 216-232. Cambridge University Press.
- Mann, D.H., Groves, P., Reanier, R.E., Gaglioti, B.V., et al., 2015, “Life and extinction of megafauna in the ice-age Arctic”, PNAS 112(46): 14301–14306.
- Morisaki, K., Izuho, M., Terry, K. & Sato, H., 2015, “Lithics and climate: technological responses to landscape change in Upper Palaeolithic northern Japan”, Antiquity: 89 (345): 554-572.
- Navarro, J. B., Moser, D. P., Flores, A., Ross, C., Rosen, M. R., et al., 2008, “Bacterial Succession within an Ephemeral Hypereutrophic Mojave Desert Playa Lake”, Microbial Ecology 57(2): 307-320.
- Neal, J. T., 1975, “Introduction”. In: Playas and dried lakes, J.T. Neal (ed.), Stroudsburg, Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Inc. Pp. 1-5. Benchmark Papers in Geology.
- Noy-Meir, I., 1985, “Desert ecosystem structure and function”, In: Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands, M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, & D.W Goodall (eds.), pp. 93–103. Ecosystems of the World, vl. 12A. Amsterdam, Elsevier.
- Ormerod, T., 1997, “Organizing chipped lithic technology at the Lone Pine site”, Ontario Archaeology 63: 17-36.
- Price, G.J., 2006, Pleistocene Paleoecology of the Eastern Darling Downs, Ph.D. Dissertation. School of Natural Resource Science, Queensland University of Technology.
- Reid, I., & Frostick, L.E., 2011, “Channel form, flows and sediments of endogenous ephemeral rivers in deserts”, In: Arid Zone Geomorphology: Process, Form, and Change in Drylands, the 3rd ed., D.S. Thomas (ed.), Pp. 301-332. UK: Willey-Blackwell.
- Rezvani, H, & Vahdati Nasab, H., 2010, “A Major Middle Palaeolithic Open-air Site at Mirak, Semnan Province, Iran”, Antiquity Vol. 84, Iss. 323, Project Gallery.
- Richerson, P.J., & Boyd, R., 2000, “Built for Speed: Pleistocene Climate Variation and the Origin of Human Culture”, In: Perspectives in Ethology 13: Evolution, Culture and Behavior, F. Tonneau & N.S. Thompson, (eds.), Pp. 1-45. Springer.
- Richter, D., Schroeder, H.B., Jack Rink, W., Julig, P.J. & Schwarcz, H.P., 2001, “The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition in the Levant and new TL dates for a Late Mousterian assemblage from Jerf al-Ajla Cave near Palmyra, Syria” Paléorient 27(2): 29-46.
- Rose, J., 2010, “New light on human prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf oasis”, Current Anthropology 51(6): 849-883.
- Rosen, M. R., 1994, “The Importance of groundwater in Playas: A review of Playa classifications and the sedimentology and hydrology of Playas”, In: Paleoclimate and Basin Evolution of Playa Systems, Rosen M. R. (ed.)., Geological Society of America Special Paper 289, 1-18.
- Shea, J. J., 2013, Stone tools in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Near East, Cambridge University Press.
- Shidrang, S., 2014, Middle East Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transitional Industries, In: Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, C. Smith (ed.), Pp. 4894-4907. Springer.
- Skellam, J.G., 1951, “Random Dispersal in theoretical populations”, Biometrika 38: 196-218.
- Smith, L. M., 2003, Playas of the Great Plains, University of Texas Press.
- Torrence, R., 1989, Time, Energy and Stone Tools, Cambridge University Press.
- Tuffreau, A., 1992, “Middle Paleolithic settlement in Northern France”, In: The Middle Paleolithic: Adaptation, Behavior, and Variability, H.L. Dibble & P. Mellars (eds.), Pp. 59-73. University of Pennsylvania, University Museum Monograph 78.
- Vahdati Nasab, H., Clark, G. A., Torkamandi, S., 2013, “Late Pleistocene Dispersal Corridors across the Iranian Plateau: A Case Study from Mirak, a Middle Paleolithic Site on the Northern Edge of the Iranian Central Desert (Dasht-e Kavir)”, Quaternary International 300: 267-281.
- Vahdati Nasab, H., Roustaei, K., & Rezvani, H., 2010, “Delazian (Mirak I): Evidence of Paleolithic Settlement at the Northern Edge of the Iranian Central Desert”, Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Rome, 5-10 May.
- Vahdati Nasab, H., & Hashemi, M., 2016, “Playas and Middle Paleolithic settlement of the Iranian Central Desert: The discovery of the Chah-e Jam Middle Paleolithic site”, Quaternary International 408 (part B): 140-152.
- Van den Bosch, F., Hengeveld, R. & Metz, J.A. J., 1992, “Analysing the Velocity of Animal Range Expansion”, Journal of Biogeography 19(2): 135-150.
- Veth, P., 2005, “Cycles of Aridity and Human Mobility: Risk Minimization Among Late Pleistocene Foragers of the Western Desert, Australia”, In: Desert Peoples: Archaeological Perspectives, P. Veth, M. Smith, P. Hiscock (Eds.), Pp. 100-115. Blackwell Publishing ltd.
- Wahida, G., Al-Tikriti, W.Y., Beech, M.J., Al-Meqbali, A., 2009, “A Middle Paleolithic Assemblage from Jebel Barakah, Coastal Abu Dhabi Emirate”, In: The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia: Paleoenvironments, Prehistory and Genetics, M.D. Petraglia & J.I. Rose (eds.),  Pp. 117-124. Springer.
- Welsh, D. A., 1973, “The Life of Sable Island's Wild Horses”, Nature Canada 2(2): 7-14.
- White, J. P., 1967, “Ethnoarchaeology in New Guinea: Two Examples”, Mankind 6: 409-414.
- White, J. P., & Thomas, D.H., 1972, “What Mean These Stones? Ethno-taxonomic Models and Archaeological Interpretations in the New Guinea Highlands”, In: Models in Archaeology, D.L. Clarke (ed.), Pp. 275-308. London: Methuen.
- Winterhalder, B., 1987, “The analysis of Hunter-Gatherer diet: stalking an Optimal Foraging Model”, In: Food and Evolution: Toward a Theory of Human Food Habits, M. Harris and E.B. Ross (eds.), Pp. 311-339. Temple University Press.
- Yoo, Y., 2007, Long-Term Changes in the Organization of Lithic Technology: A Case Study from the Imjin-Hantan River Area, Korea, Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Anthropology, McGill University, Montreal.

فایل ها

هم رسانی

ارجاع به این مقاله

آمار